The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics

CHAPTER IV.. Authorities for the Stoic Philosophy; Its Problem and Divisions.

AUTHORITIES FOR THE STOIC PHILOSOPHY; ITS PROBLEM AND DIVISIONS.

A. Authorities 53 1. Review of authorities 53 2. Use to be made of authorities 55 B. Problem proposed to the Stoic philosophy 56 1. Its practical character 56 2. Necessity for intellectual knowledge 58 3. Attitude towards logic and natural science of Aristo— of Zeno and Cleanthes 59 C. Divisions of philosophy 66 1. Threefold division 67 2. Relative importance of each part 68

CHAPTER V.. Logic of the Stoics.

LOGIC OF THE STOICS.

A. General remarks 70 1. Field of Logic 70 2. Words and thoughts 73 B. Theory of knowledge 75 1. General character of this theory 75 2. Prominent points in the theory—perceptions— conceptions—standards of truth 77 C. Formal logic 92 1. Utterance in general 92 2. Incomplete expression—words—the categories 94 3. Complete utterance—judgment—inference—fallacies 110 D. Estimate of Stoic logic 123 1. Its shortcomings 123 2. Its value 123

CHAPTER VI.. The Study of Nature: 1. Fundamental Positions.

THE STUDY OF NATURE: 1. FUNDAMENTAL POSITIONS.

A. Materialism 126 1. Meaning of the Stoic Materialism 126 2. Causes which led to Stoic Materialism 132 3. Consequences of Stoic Materialism—individual perceptions—theory of universal mingling 135 B. Dynamical theory of Nature 139 1. Matter and force 139 2. Nature of force 141 3. Deity—God as force—God as matter 148 C. Pantheism 156 1. God identical with the world 156 2. Relative difference between God and the world 158 3. Views of Boëthus 159

CHAPTER VII.. The Study of Nature: 2. Course, Character, and Government of the

THE STUDY OF NATURE: 2. COURSE, CHARACTER, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNIVERSE.

A. The General Course of the Universe 161 1. Origin of the world 161 2. End of the world 163 3. Cycles in the world’s course 165 B. Government of the World 170 1. Nature of Destiny—as Providence—as Generative Reason 170 2. Arguments in favour of Providence 173 3. The idea of Providence determined 175 C. Nature of the world 182 1. Its unity and perfection 183 2. Moral theory of the world 187

CHAPTER VIII.

THE STUDY OF NATURE: 3. IRRATIONAL NATURE. THE ELEMENTS.—THE UNIVERSE.

A. The most general ideas on Nature 194 B. The Elements 197 C. The Universe 202 1. The stars 204 2. Meteorology 206 3. Plants and animals 208

CHAPTER IX.. The Study of Nature: 4. Man.

THE STUDY OF NATURE: 4. MAN.

A. The Soul 210 1. Materialistic nature of the soul 210 2. Divisions of the soul 213 B. The Individual Soul and the Soul of the Universe 216 C. Freedom and Immortality 219

CHAPTER X.

ETHICS: 1. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE STOIC ETHICS. ABSTRACT THEORY OF MORALITY.

A. The Highest Good 225 1. Nature of the Highest Good 225 2. The Good and Evil 230 3. Pleasure and the Good 235 4. Negative character of Happiness 239 5. The Highest Good as Law 240 B. Emotions and Virtue 243 1. The Emotions—their nature—varieties of 243 2. Idea of Virtue—positive and negative aspects of—the virtues severally—their mutual relations—unity of virtue 254 C. The Wise Man 268 1. Wisdom and Folly 268 2. Universal Depravity 272 3. Conversion 275

CHAPTER XI.. Ethics: 2. the Stoic Theory of Morals As Modified in Practice.

ETHICS: 2. THE STOIC THEORY OF MORALS AS MODIFIED IN PRACTICE.

A. Things to be preferred and eschewed 278 1. Secondary goods 280 2. Classes of things indifferent 281 3. Collision of modified and abstract theory 284 B. Perfect and intermediate duties 287 C. Emotions 290 1. Permitted affections 290 2. Modification of apathy 292 3. The state of progress 293

CHAPTER XII.. Ethics: 3. Applied Moral Science.

ETHICS: 3. APPLIED MORAL SCIENCE.

A. The Individual 301 1. Importance attaching to the individual 301 2. Cynicism of the Stoics 305 B. Social Relations 311 1. Origin and use of society 311 2. Justice and mercy 315 3. Friendship 317 4. The family and civil life—aversion to political life—citizenship of the world 320 C. Man and the Course of the World 332 1. Submission to the course of nature 332 2. Suicide 335

CHAPTER XIII.. The Relation of the Stoics to Religion.

THE RELATION OF THE STOICS TO RELIGION.

A. General connection of Stoicism and Religion 341 1. Connection of Stoicism with popular faith 343 2. Free criticism of popular belief 344 3. The truth in Polytheism 348 4. Doctrine of Demons 351 B. The Allegorising spirit 354 1. Allegorical interpretation of myths 354 2. Interpretation of myths respecting the Gods 357 3. Allegory applied to heroic myths 367 C. Prophetic powers 369 1. Divination 370 2. Prophecy explained by natural causes 374 3. Causes of divination 377

CHAPTER XIV.. The Stoic Philosophy As a Whole and Its Historical Antecedents.

THE STOIC PHILOSOPHY AS A WHOLE AND ITS HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS.

A. Inner connection of the system 381 1. Ethical side of Stoicism 382 2. Scientific side of the Stoic system 383 3. Connection of the moral and scientific elements 385 B. Relation of Stoicism to previous systems 387 1. Its relation to Socrates and the Cynics 387 2. Relation to Megarians and Heraclitus 392 3. Relation to Aristotle 396 4. Relation to Plato 399 C. The Stoic philosophy as a whole 400 1. Its place in history 400 2. Its onesidedness 402

PART III.. The Epicureans.

THE EPICUREANS.

CHAPTER XV.

EPICUREANS AND THE EPICUREAN SCHOOL.

A. Epicurus 404 B. Scholars of Epicurus 408 C. Epicureans of the Roman period 411

CHAPTER XVI.

CHARACTER AND DIVISIONS OF THE EPICUREAN TEACHING. THE TEST-SCIENCE OF TRUTH.

A. Character of Epicurean system 418 1. Its power of self-preservation 418 2. Aim of philosophy according to the Epicureans 420 3. Divisions of philosophy 424 B. Canonic or the Test-Science of Truth 425 1. Sensation and perception 425 2. Notions 428 3. Opinions 429 4. Standard of truth subjective 431

CHAPTER XVII.. The Epicurean Views of Nature.

THE EPICUREAN VIEWS OF NATURE.

A. General Views on Nature 434 1. Object, value, and method of the study of nature 434 2. Mechanical explanation of nature 437 3. Atoms and empty space 439 B. The World 444 1. The swerving aside of atoms 444 2. Origin of the world 447 3. Arrangement of the universe 449 4. Plants and animals 451 C. Mankind 451 1. Origin of the human race 451 2. The soul 453 3. Sensation 457 4. Will 459

CHAPTER XVIII.. Views of Epicurus on Religion.

VIEWS OF EPICURUS ON RELIGION.

A. Criticism of the Gods and the popular faith 462 B. The Gods according to Epicurus 464 1. Reasons for his belief 464 2. Nature of the Epicurean Gods 467

CHAPTER XIX.. The Moral Science of the Epicureans: 1. General Views.

THE MORAL SCIENCE OF THE EPICUREANS: 1. GENERAL VIEWS.

A. Pleasure 472 1. Pleasure the Highest Good 472 2. Freedom from pain 474 B. Intellectual Happiness 476 1. Intelligence 476 2. Reasons for rising superior to the senses 478 3. Virtue 480 C. The Wise Man 483

CHAPTER XX.. The Epicurean Ethics Continued: 2. Special Points.

THE EPICUREAN ETHICS CONTINUED: 2. SPECIAL POINTS.

A. The Individual 485 B. Civil Society and the Family 490 1. Civil society 490 2. Family life 492 C. Friendship 493

CHAPTER XXI.. The Epicurean System As a Whole. Its Position in History.

THE EPICUREAN SYSTEM AS A WHOLE. ITS POSITION IN HISTORY.

A. Coherence of the Epicurean teaching 499 B. Historical position of Epicureanism 503 1. Relation to Stoicism 503 2. Relation to Aristippus 508 3. Relation to Democritus 510 4. Relation to Aristotle and Plato 511

PART IV.. The Sceptics: Pyrrho and the Older Academy.

THE SCEPTICS: PYRRHO AND THE OLDER ACADEMY.

CHAPTER XXII.

PYRRHO.

A. Historical position of Scepticism 514 1. Relation to cotemporary dogmatic systems 514 2. Causes producing it 515 3. Pyrrho and his followers 517 B. Teaching of Pyrrho 521 1. Impossibility of knowledge 521 2. Withholding of judgment 523 3. Mental imperturbability 525

CHAPTER XXIII.. The New Academy.

THE NEW ACADEMY.

A. Arcesilaus 528 1. Denial of knowledge 528 2. Probability 534 B. Carneades 535 1. Negative views of 538 2. Positive views of 553 C. School of Carneades 563

GENERAL INDEX 567

PART I.. State of Culture in Greece.

STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.

CHAPTER I.

THE INTELLECTUAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF GREECE AT THE CLOSE OF THE FOURTH CENTURY.

In Plato and Aristotle Greek Philosophy reached its greatest perfection. In their hands the Socratic philosophy of conceptions grew into elaborate systems, which embraced the whole range of contemporary knowledge, and grouped it from definite points of view so as to afford a connected view of the universe. The study of nature was by them supplemented by careful enquiries into the subject of morals. It was, moreover, transformed, enlarged, and enriched by Aristotle. In metaphysics, the foundations for a philosophical structure were deeply laid, everything being referred to first principles, in a way which no previous philosopher had before attempted. A multitude of phenomena which earlier thinkers had carelessly passed over, more particularly the phenomena of mental life, were pressed into the service of research; new questions were raised; new answers given. New ideas had penetrated every branch of knowledge. That idealism in which the Greek mind so beautifully and lucidly found expression had been set forth by Plato in brilliant purity, and had been by Aristotle combined with careful observation. Practice and theory had brought the dialectical method to the position of an art. A valuable instrument of thought had been gained in the scientific use of terms of which Aristotle was the real originator. Within a few generations the intellectual treasures of Greece had been manifoldly increased, both in extent and value. The heritage received by Socrates from his predecessors could hardly be recognised as the same in that which Aristotle left to his successors.

Great as was the progress made by Greek philosophy in the fourth century before Christ, quite as great were the difficulties with which it had perpetually to contend; quite as difficult the problems on the solution of which it had to labour. Aristotle had already pointed out the weak points in the system of Plato, which rendered it impossible for him to accept that system as satisfactory. From the platform of later knowledge still further objections might be raised to it. Even in Aristotle’s own system inconsistencies on some of the most important points might be found, concealed under a certain indefiniteness of expression, but fatal if once brought to light to the soundness of the whole. For with all his ingenuity, Aristotle never succeeded in harmoniously blending all the elements out of which his system was composed. Thus the divergencies of his immediate followers from the original Aristotelian teaching may be accounted for.

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