The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence

CHAPTER I. The Naval Campaign on Lake Champlain

THE NAVAL CAMPAIGN ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN

1775-1776

Preponderant effect of Control of the Water upon the Struggle for American Independence 6

Deducible then from Reason and from Experience 6

Consequent Necessity to the Americans of a Counterpoise to British Navy 6

This obtained through Burgoyne's Surrender 6

The Surrender of Burgoyne traceable directly to the Naval Campaigns on Lake Champlain, 1775, 1776 7

The subsequent Course of the War in all Quarters of the world due to that decisive Campaign 7

The Strategic Problem of Lake Champlain familiar to Americans from the Wars between France and Great Britain prior to 1775 8

Consequent prompt Initiative by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold 8

Energetic Pursuit of first Successes by Arnold 9

Complete Control of Lake Champlain thus secured 9

Invasion of Canada by Montgomery, 1775 9

Arnold marches through Maine Wilderness and joins Montgomery before Quebec 10

Assault on Quebec. Failure, and Death of Montgomery 10

Arnold maintains Blockade of Quebec, 1776 10

Relief of the Place by British Navy 11

Arnold Retreats to Crown Point 12

Arnold's Schemes and Diligence to create a Lake Navy, 1776 13

Difficulties to be overcome 13

Superior Advantages of the British 13

The British by building acquire Superiority, but too late for effect in 1776 13

Ultimate Consequences from this Retardation 14

Constitution of the Naval Force raised by Arnold 14

He moves with it to the foot of Lake Champlain 15

Takes position for Defence at Valcour Island 15

Particular Difficulties encountered by British 15

Constitution of the British Lake Navy 16

Land Forces of the Opponents 17

Naval Forces of the Two at the Battle of Valcour Island 17

Magnitude of the Stake at Issue 18

Arnold's Purposes and Plans 18

Advance of the British 19

Arnold's Disposition of his Flotilla to receive Attack 20

The Battle of Valcour Island 21

The Americans Worsted 22

Arnold Retreats by night Undetected 23

Pursuit by the British 24

Destruction of the American Vessels 25

British Appreciation of the Importance of the Action, as shown 26

Criticism of the conduct of the Opposing Leaders 26

Arnold's Merit and Gallantry 27

End of the Naval Story of the Lakes 27

Effect of the Campaign upon the Decisive Events of 1777 28

CHAPTER II. Naval Action At Boston, Charleston, New York, and Narragansett

NAVAL ACTION AT BOSTON, CHARLESTON, NEW YORK, AND NARRAGANSETT BAY--ASSOCIATED LAND OPERATIONS, TO THE BATTLE OF TRENTON

1776

Necessity that Force, if resorted to, be from the first Adequate 29

Application to National Policy in peace 29

To the Monroe Doctrine 29

Failure of the British Government of 1775 in this respect 30

Consequences of such failure 30

General Howe evacuates Boston and retires to Halifax. Extent of his Command 30

Dissemination of Effort by British Government 30

Expedition against South Carolina 31

Local Conditions about Charleston 32

Description of Fort Moultrie 33

Plan of British Naval Attack 33

The Battle of Fort Moultrie 34

Failure of the Attack. British Losses 36

Comment upon the Action 37

The Expedition retires to New York 38

The Howes, Admiral and General, arrive in New York Bay 39

Operations about the City 39

Continuous and Decisive, but Inconspicuous, Part played by the British Navy 40

Description of Local Conditions about New York 40

American Preparations for Defence 41

Crucial Weakness of the Scheme 42

The Advance of the British 42

Washington withdraws his Army from the Brooklyn side 43

Success of this Withdrawal due to British Negligence 44

Subsequent Operations, and Retreat of Washington to New Jersey 45

Retreat continued to Pennsylvania, where he receives reinforcements 46

Slackness of Sir William Howe's actions 47

The British take possession of Narragansett Bay. Importance of that position 48

Washington suddenly takes the Offensive. Battle of Trenton 48

He recovers most of the State of New Jersey 49

CHAPTER III

THE DECISIVE PERIOD OF THE WAR. SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE AND CAPTURE OF PHILADELPHIA BY HOWE. THE NAVAL PART IN EACH OPERATION

1777

British Object in Campaign of 1777 the same as that in 1776 50

Part assigned to Burgoyne 50

Slowness of his Progress at the beginning 51

Sir William Howe, instead of cooeperating, takes his Army to the Chesapeake 52

Criticism of this Course 52

Howe's Progress to Philadelphia, and Capture of that City 53

Admiral Lord Howe takes the Fleet from the Chesapeake to the Delaware 53

Surrender of Burgoyne and his Army 53

British Naval Operations in Delaware Bay 54

Brief Tenure--Nine Months--of Philadelphia by British 55

The general Failure of the British Campaign determined by Howe's move to the Chesapeake 55

General Results of the Campaign 56

Part played by the British Navy. Analogous to that in Spain, 1808-1812, and in many other instances 57

CHAPTER IV. War Begins Between France and Great Britain. British Evacuate

WAR BEGINS BETWEEN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. BRITISH EVACUATE PHILADELPHIA. NAVAL OPERATIONS OF D'ESTAING AND HOWE ABOUT NEW YORK, NARRAGANSETT BAY, AND BOSTON. COMPLETE SUCCESS OF LORD HOWE. AMERICAN DISAPPOINTMENT IN D'ESTAING. LORD HOWE RETURNS TO ENGLAND

1778

France recognizes the Independence of the United States, and makes with them a defensive Alliance 58

A French Fleet sails for America under Comte d'Estaing 59

Unprepared condition of the British Navy 59

Admiral Byron sails with a Reinforcement for America 59

Ill effect of Naval Unreadiness upon British Commerce; and especially on the West Indies 60

Admiral Keppel puts to Sea with the British Channel Fleet 61

First Guns of the War with France 62

Extreme Length of Byron's Passage 62

He turns back to Halifax 62

D'Estaing's slowness allows Howe to escape from Delaware Bay. Howe's Celerity 62

Evacuation of Philadelphia by British Army, and its precipitate Retreat to New York 63

Escape of both Army and Fleet due to d'Estaing's Delays 63

Rapid Action of Lord Howe 64

D'Estaing Arrives off New York 64

Howe's elaborate Dispositions for the Defence of New York Bay 65

Statement of British and French Naval Force 66

D'Estaing decides not to attempt Passage of the Bar, and puts to Sea 67

Anchors off Narragansett Bay 69

Forces the Entrance to Newport and Anchors inside the Bay 70

The British garrison besieged by superior American and French forces 70

Howe appears with his Fleet and anchors off the entrance, at Point Judith 71

Sustained Rapidity of his action at New York 71

D'Estaing Withdraws from Siege of Newport and puts to Sea 73

Manoeuvres of the two Opponents 74

D'Estaing quits the Field, and both Fleets are scattered by a heavy Gale 75

Howe returns to New York and collects his Fleet 76

D'Estaing calls oft Newport; but abandons the Siege finally, taking his Fleet to Boston 77

Critical Condition of British garrison in Newport. D'Estaing's withdrawal compels Americans to raise the siege 77

Howe follows d'Estaing to Boston 77

Discussion of the Conduct of the opposing Admirals 78

Howe gives up his Command and returns to England 80

CHAPTER V. The Naval War in Europe. the Battle of Ushant

THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPE. THE BATTLE OF USHANT

1778

Admirals Keppel and D'Orvilliers put to Sea from Portsmouth and Brest 82

Instructions given to the French Admiral 83

Preliminary Manoeuvres after the two Fleets had sighted one another 83

The Battle of Ushant 84

A Drawn Battle. The respective Losses 91

The Significance of the Battle in the fighting Development of the British Navy 93

The "Order of Battle" 93

The Disputes and Courts Martial in Great Britain arising from the Battle of Ushant 94

Keppel Resigns his Command 97

CHAPTER VI. Operations in the West Indies, 1778-1779. the British Invasion of

OPERATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES, 1778-1779. THE BRITISH INVASION OF GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA

Influence of Seasonal Conditions upon Naval Operations in America 98

Commercial Importance of the West Indies 98

The French seize Dominica 99

D'Estaing Sails with his Fleet from Boston for Martinique 100

A British Squadron under Hotham sails the same day for Barbados, with Five Thousand Troops 100

Admiral Barrington's Seizure of Santa Lucia 101

D'Estaing sails to Recapture it 102

Rapidity and Skill shown in Barrington's Movements and Dispositions 102

D'Estaing's attacks Foiled, both on Sea and on Shore 103

He Abandons the attempt and Returns to Martinique 104

Importance of Santa Lucia in Subsequent Operations 104

Byron Reaches Barbados, and takes over Command from Barrington 105

D'Estaing Captures the British Island Grenada 105

Byron goes to its Relief 106

The Action between the two Fleets, of Byron and d'Estaing, July 6, 1779 106

Criticism of the two Commanders-in-Chief 110

D'Estaing returns to Grenada, which remains French 112

Byron returns to England. British North American Station assigned to Admiral Arbuthnot, Leeward Islands to Rodney 113

British Operations in Georgia and South Carolina. Capture of Savannah 113

Fatal Strategic Error in these Operations 114

D'Estaing's attempt to Retake Savannah Foiled 115

His appearance on the coast, however, causes the British to abandon Narragansett Bay 115

D'Estaing succeeded by de Guichen in North America. Rodney also arrives 115

CHAPTER VII. The Naval War in European Waters, 1779. Allied Fleets Invade the

THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPEAN WATERS, 1779. ALLIED FLEETS INVADE THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. RODNEY DESTROYS TWO SPANISH SQUADRONS AND RELIEVES GIBRALTAR

Spain declares War against Great Britain 116

Delays in Junction of French and Spanish Fleets 116

They enter the Channel. Alarm in England 117

Plans of the French Government 118

Continue reading The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence free in the Wunder reader →