The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

CHAPTER I.. Discussion of the Elements of Sea Power.

DISCUSSION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SEA POWER.

The sea a great common 25 Advantages of water-carriage over that by land 25 Navies exist for the protection of commerce 26 Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports 27 Development of colonies and colonial posts 28 Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies 28 General conditions affecting Sea Power: I. Geographical position 29 II. Physical conformation 35 III. Extent of territory 42 IV. Number of population 44 V. National character 50 VI. Character and policy of governments 58 England 59 Holland 67 France 69 Influence of colonies on Sea Power 82 The United States: Its weakness in Sea Power 83 Its chief interest in internal development 84 Danger from blockades 85 Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest 87 Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power 88 Purpose of the historical narrative 89

CHAPTER II.. State of Europe in 1660.--Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667.--Sea

STATE OF EUROPE IN 1660.--SECOND ANGLO-DUTCH WAR, 1665-1667.--SEA BATTLES OF LOWESTOFT AND OF THE FOUR DAYS

Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV. 90 Followed shortly by general wars 91 French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu 92 Condition of France in 1660 93 Condition of Spain 94 Condition of the Dutch United Provinces 96 Their commerce and colonies 97 Character of their government 98 Parties in the State 99 Condition of England in 1660 99 Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships 101 Conditions of other European States 102 Louis XIV. the leading personality in Europe 103 His policy 104 Colbert's administrative acts 105 Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665 107 Battle of Lowestoft, 1665 108 Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers 109 The group formation 112 The order of battle for sailing-ships 115 The Four Days' Battle, 1666 117 Military merits of the opposing fleets 126 Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion 127 Ruyter in the Thames, 1667 132 Peace of Breda, 1667 132 Military value of commerce-destroying 132

CHAPTER III.. War of England and France in Alliance Against the United

WAR OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN ALLIANCE AGAINST THE UNITED PROVINCES, 1672-1674.--FINALLY, OF FRANCE AGAINST COMBINED EUROPE, 1674-1678.--SEA BATTLES OF SOLEBAY, THE TEXEL, AND STROMBOLI.

Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands 139 Policy of the United Provinces 139 Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden 140 Anger of Louis XIV. 140 Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt 141 His memorial 142 Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II. 143 The two kings declare war against the United Provinces 144 Military character of this war 144 Naval strategy of the Dutch 144 Tactical combinations of De Ruyter 145 Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration 145 Battle of Solebay, 1672 146 Tactical comments 147 Effect of the battle on the course of the war 148 Land campaign of the French in Holland 149 Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland 150 Accession to power of William of Orange 150 Uneasiness among European States 150 Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673 151 Naval battle of the Texel, 1673 152 Effect upon the general war 154 Equivocal action of the French fleet 155 General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions 156 Military character of De Ruyter 157 Coalition against France 158 Peace between England and the United Provinces 158 Sicilian revolt against Spain 159 Battle of Stromboli, 1676 161 Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics 163 De Ruyter killed off Agosta 165 England becomes hostile to France 166 Sufferings of the United Provinces 167 Peace of Nimeguen, 1678 168 Effects of the war on France and Holland 169 Notice of Comte d'Estrées 170

CHAPTER IV.. English Revolution.--War of the League of Augsburg,

ENGLISH REVOLUTION.--WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG, 1688-1697.--SEA BATTLES OF BEACHY HEAD AND LA HOUGUE.

Aggressive policy of Louis XIV. 173 State of French, English, and Dutch navies 174 Accession of James II. 175 Formation of the League of Augsburg 176 Louis declares war against the Emperor of Germany 177 Revolution in England 178 Louis declares war against the United Provinces 178 William and Mary crowned 178 James II. lands in Ireland 179 Misdirection of French naval forces 180 William III. lands in Ireland 181 Naval battle of Beachy Head, 1690 182 Tourville's military character 184 Battle of the Boyne, 1690 186 End of the struggle in Ireland 186 Naval battle of La Hougue, 1692 189 Destruction of French ships 190 Influence of Sea Power in this war 191 Attack and defence of commerce 193 Peculiar characteristics of French privateering 195 Peace of Ryswick, 1697 197 Exhaustion of France: its causes 198

CHAPTER V.. War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713.--Sea Battle of Malaga.

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1702-1713.--SEA BATTLE OF MALAGA.

Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria 201 King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou 202 Death of the King of Spain 202 Louis XIV. accepts the bequests 203 He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands 203 Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria 204 Declarations of war 205 The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain 206 Affair of the Vigo galleons 207 Portugal joins the allies 208 Character of the naval warfare 209 Capture of Gibraltar by the English 210 Naval battle of Malaga, 1704 211 Decay of the French navy 212 Progress of the land war 213 Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca 215 Disgrace of Marlborough 216 England offers terms of peace 217 Peace of Utrecht, 1713 218 Terms of the peace 219 Results of the war to the different belligerents 219 Commanding position of Great Britain 224 Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength 225 Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power 226 Depressed condition of France 227 Commercial prosperity of England 228 Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying 229 Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711 230 War between Russia and Sweden 231

CHAPTER VI.. The Regency in France.--Alberoni in Spain.--Policies of Walpole

THE REGENCY IN FRANCE.--ALBERONI IN SPAIN.--POLICIES OF WALPOLE AND FLEURI.--WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION.--ENGLISH CONTRABAND TRADE IN SPANISH AMERICA.--GREAT BRITAIN DECLARES WAR AGAINST SPAIN.--1715-1739.

Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV. 232 Accession of George I. 232 Regency of Philip of Orleans 233 Administration of Alberoni in Spain 234 Spaniards invade Sardinia 235 Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France 235 Spaniards invade Sicily 236 Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718 237 Failure and dismissal of Alberoni 239 Spain accepts terms 239 Great Britain interferes in the Baltic 239 Death of Philip of Orleans 241 Administration of Fleuri in France 241 Growth of French commerce 242 France in the East Indies 243 Troubles between England and Spain 244 English contraband trade in Spanish America 245 Illegal search of English ships 246 Walpole's struggles to preserve peace 247 War of the Polish Succession 247 Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies 248 Bourbon family compact 248 France acquires Bar and Lorraine 249 England declares war against Spain 250 Morality of the English action toward Spain 250 Decay of the French navy 252 Death of Walpole and of Fleuri 253

CHAPTER VII.. War Between Great Britain and Spain, 1739.--War of the Austrian

WAR BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND SPAIN, 1739.--WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, 1740.--FRANCE JOINS SPAIN AGAINST GREAT BRITAIN, 1744.--SEA BATTLES OF MATTHEWS, ANSON, AND HAWKE.--PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1748.

Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783 254 Neglect of the navy by French government 254 Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards 255 Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India 258 Condition of the contending navies 259 Expeditions of Vernon and Anson 261 Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession 262 England allies herself to Austria 262 Naval affairs in the Mediterranean 263 Influence of Sea Power on the war 264 Naval battle off Toulon, 1744 265 Causes of English failure 267 Courts-martial following the action 268 Inefficient action of English navy 269 Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745 269 Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power 269 France overruns Belgium and invades Holland 270 Naval actions of Anson and Hawke 271 Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Étenduère 272 Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies 273 Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs 275 La Bourdonnais reduces Madras 276 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 277 Madras exchanged for Louisburg 277 Results of the war 278 Effect of Sea Power on the issue 279

CHAPTER VIII.. Seven Years' War, 1756-1763.--England's Overwhelming Power and

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1756-1763.--ENGLAND'S OVERWHELMING POWER AND CONQUESTS ON THE SEAS, IN NORTH AMERICA, EUROPE, AND EAST AND WEST INDIES.--SEA BATTLES: BYNG OFF MINORCA; HAWKE AND CONFLANS; POCOCK AND D'ACHÉ IN EAST INDIES.

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled 281 Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy 281 He is recalled from India 282 His policy abandoned by the French 282 Agitation in North America 283 Braddock's expedition, 1755 284 Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace 285 French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756 285 Byng sails to relieve the place 286 Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756 286 Characteristics of the French naval policy 287 Byng returns to Gibraltar 290 He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot 290 Formal declarations of war by England and France 291 England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war 291 France is drawn into a continental struggle 292 The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins 293 Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England 293 Operations in North America 293 Fall of Louisburg, 1758 294 Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760 294 Influence of Sea Power on the continental war 295 English plans for the general naval operations 296 Choiseul becomes Minister in France 297 He plans an invasion of England 297 Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759 298 Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen 299 Consequent frustration of the invasion of England 300 Project to invade Scotland 300 Sailing of the Brest fleet 300 Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759 302 Accession of Charles III. to Spanish throne 304 Death of George II. 304 Clive in India 305 Battle of Plassey, 1757 306 Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India 307 Naval actions between Pocock and D'Aché, 1758, 1759 307 Destitute condition of French naval stations in India 309 The French fleet abandons the struggle 310 Final fall of the French power in India 310 Ruined condition of the French navy 311 Alliance between France and Spain 313 England declares war against Spain 313 Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies 314 French and Spaniards invade Portugal 316 The invasion repelled by England 316 Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters 316 Spain sues for peace 317 Losses of British mercantile shipping 317 Increase of British commerce 318 Commanding position of Great Britain 319 Relations of England and Portugal 320 Terms of the Treaty of Paris 321 Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain 322 Results of the maritime war 323 Results of the continental war 324 Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable 324 Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus 325 Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain 326 Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain 327 British success due to maritime superiority 328 Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets 329

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