Sea Power in Its Relations to the War of 1812. Volume 1

CHAPTER I. Colonial Conditions

COLONIAL CONDITIONS Page Remote origin of the causes of the War of 1812 1

Two principal causes: impressment and the carrying trade 2

Claim of Great Britain as to impressment 3

Counter-claim of the United States 4

Lack of unanimity among the American people 5

Prevailing British ideas as to sea power and its relations to carrying trade and impressment 9

The Navigation Acts 10

Distinction between "Commerce" and "Navigation" 11

History and development of the Navigation Acts, and of the national opinions relating to them 13

Unanimity of conviction in Great Britain 22

Supposed benefit to the British carrying trade from loss of the American colonies 23

British entrepôt legislation 24

Relation of the entrepôt idea to the Orders in Council of 1807 27

Colonial monopoly a practice common to all European maritime states 27

Effect of the Independence of the United States upon traditional commercial prepossessions 29

Consequent policy of Great Britain 29

Commercial development of the British transatlantic colonies during the colonial period 31

Interrelation of the continental and West India colonies of Great Britain 35

Bearing of this upon the Navigation Acts 36

Rivalry of American-built ships with British navigation during the colonial period 37

Resultant commercial rivalry after Independence 40

Consequent disagreements, derived from colonial restrictions, and leading to war 41

CHAPTER II. From Independence to Jay's Treaty

FROM INDEPENDENCE TO JAY'S TREATY

Rupture of the colonial relation 42

Transitional character of the period 1774-1794, to the United States 43

Epochal significance of Jay's Treaty 43

The question of British navigation, as affected by the loss of the colonies 45

British commercial expectations from the political weakness of the United States, 1783-1789 46

System advocated by Lord Sheffield 47

Based upon considerations of navigation and naval power 49

Navigation Acts essentially military in purpose 51

Jefferson's views upon this question 52

Imperial value of the British Navigation Act before American Independence 53

Influence of the inter-colonial trade at the same period 55

Essential rivalry between it and British trade in general 55

Common interest of continental America and of Great Britain in the West Indies 56

Pitt's Bill, of March, 1783 58

Controversy provoked by it in Great Britain 60

British jealousy of American navigation 63

Desire to exclude American navigation from British colonial trade 65

Lord Sheffield's pamphlet 65

Reply of the West India planters 66

Lapse of Pitt's bill 67

Navigation Acts applied in full rigor to intercourse between the United States and West Indies 68

This policy continues till Jay's Treaty 69

Not a wrong to the United States, though an injury 70

Naval impotence of the United States 71

Dependence on Portugal against Barbary pirates 72

Profit of Great Britain from this impotence 74

Apparent success of Sheffield's trade policy, 1783-1789 75

Increase of British navigation 75

American counteractive legislation after the adoption of the Constitution 76

Report of the committee of the British Privy Council on this subject, 1790 77

Aggressive spirit of the Navigation Acts 79

Change of conditions through American navigation laws 80

Recommendations of the British committee 81

Effects of the French Revolution 85

Collapse of French colonial system 85

Failure of Sheffield's policy, in supplying the West Indies from Canada 86

Great Britain's war necessities require aid of American shipping 86

Her resolve to deprive France of the same aid 88

Consequent lawless measures towards American ships and commerce 88

Jay's mission.--Impressment not mentioned in his instructions 88

CHAPTER III. From Jay's Treaty to the Orders in Council, 1794-1807

FROM JAY'S TREATY TO THE ORDERS IN COUNCIL, 1794-1807

Arbitrary war measures of Great Britain, 1793 89

Rule of 1756 90

Peculiar relation of the United States to this Rule 92

Jay's arrival in London 93

Characteristics of his negotiations 94

Great Britain concedes direct trade with West Indies 95

Rejection of this article by the Senate, on account of accompanying conditions 96

Concession nevertheless continued by British order 97

Reasons for this tolerance 97

Conditions of trade from Jay's mission to the Peace of 1801 97

No concession of the principle of the Rule of 1756 98

Renewal of war between Great Britain and France, 1803 99

Prosperity of American commerce 100

Question raised of "direct trade" 100

Decision in British Admiralty Court adverse to United States, 1805 101

United States subjected again to colonial regulation 103

Remonstrance and negotiation of Monroe, American Minister in London 104

Death of Pitt. Change of ministry in Great Britain. Position of Charles James Fox 105

Fox's attempt at compromise 108

The blockade of May 16, 1806 108

Its lawfulness contested by the United States 110

Its importance in history 112

Retaliatory commercial action by the United States 113

Pinkney sent to England as colleague to Monroe 113

Colonial trade, and impressment of seamen from American vessels, the leading subjects mentioned in their instructions 114

Historical summary of the impressment question 114

Opening of negotiations by Monroe and Pinkney 128

Death of Fox 131

Course of the negotiations 131

Provisional treaty, signed December 31, 1806 133

Rejected by United States Government 133

Monroe and Pinkney directed to reopen negotiations 133

Change of ministry in Great Britain. Canning becomes Foreign Secretary 134

The British Government refuses further negotiation 135

Monroe leaves England, Pinkney remaining as minister 135

"Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" 135

Consistency of Jefferson's Administration on the subject of impressment 137

It neglects to prepare for war 138

CHAPTER IV. From the Orders in Council to War

FROM THE ORDERS IN COUNCIL TO WAR

Reservation of the British Government in signing the treaty of December 31, 1806 141

The Berlin Decree 142

Ambiguity of its wording 143

The question of "private property," so called, embarked in commercial venture at sea. Discussion 144

Wide political scope of the Berlin Decree 148

Twofold importance of the United States in international policy 149

Consequent aims of France and Great Britain 149

British Order in Council of January 7, 1807 150

Attitude of the United States Government 152

Military purpose of the Berlin Decree and the Continental System 153

The "Chesapeake" affair 155

Conference concerning it between Canning and Monroe 156

Action of President Jefferson 160

Use made of it by Canning 161

Correspondence concerning the "Chesapeake" affair 161

Rose appointed envoy to Washington to negotiate a settlement 165

Failure of his mission 167

Persistent British refusal to punish the offending officer 169

Significance of the "Chesapeake" affair in the relations of the two nations 168

Its analogy to impressment 170

Enforcement of the Berlin Decree by Napoleon 172

Its essential character 174

The Decree and the Continental System are supported by the course of the American Government 175

Pinkney's conviction of Great Britain's peril 177

The British Orders in Council, November, 1807 177

Their effect upon the United States 178

Just resentment in America 178

Action of the Administration and Congress 181

The Embargo Act of December, 1807 182

Explanations concerning it to Great Britain 183

Its intentions, real and alleged 185

Its failure, as an alternative to war 186

Jefferson's aversion to the carrying trade 187

Growing ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain 190

Relief to Great Britain from the effects of the Continental System, by the Spanish revolt against Napoleon 191

Depression of United States industries under the Embargo 192

Difficulty of enforcement 194

Evasions and smuggling 195

The Embargo beneficial to Canada and Nova Scotia 198

Effects in Great Britain 199

Relief to British navigation through the Embargo 200

Effect of the Embargo upon American revenue 202

Numbers of American vessels remain abroad, submitting to the Orders in Council, and accepting British licenses and British convoy 203

Napoleon's Bayonne Decree against them; April 17, 1808 203

Illustrations of the working of Napoleon's Decrees and of the Orders in Council 204

Vigorous enforcement of the Embargo in 1808 206

Popular irritation and opposition 207

Act for its further enforcement, January 9, 1809 208

Evidences of overt resistance to it 209

Act for partial repeal, introduced February 8 210

Conflicting opinions as to the Embargo, in and out of Congress 211

The Non-Intercourse Act, March 1, 1809 214

Its effect upon commercial restrictions 215

Canning's advances, in consequence of Non-Intercourse Act 215

Instructions sent to Erskine, British Minister at Washington 216

Erskine's misleading communication of them, April 18, 1809 218

Consequent renewal of trade with Great Britain 219

Erskine disavowed. Non-Intercourse resumed, August 9, 1809 219

Orders in Council of November, 1807, revoked; and substitute issued, April 26, 1809 220

Consequent partial revival of American commerce 220

Francis J. Jackson appointed as Erskine's successor 221

His correspondence with the American Secretary of State 222

Further communication with him refused 225

Criticism of the American side of this correspondence 226

Wellesley succeeds Canning as British Foreign Secretary 229

Jackson's dismissal communicated to Wellesley by Pinkney 229

Wellesley delays action 230

British view of the diplomatic situation 231

Failure of the Non-Intercourse Act 232

Difficulty of finding a substitute 233

Act of May 1, 1810.--Its provisions 234

Napoleon's Rambouillet Decree, March 23, 1810 235

Act of May 1, 1810, communicated to France and Great Britain 236

Napoleon's action. Champagny's letter, August 5, 1810 237

Madison accepts it as revoking the French Decrees 238

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