A Beginner's History of Philosophy, Vol. 2: Modern Philosophy

Chapter I. the Characteristics and Divisions of the Modern

PERIOD 1 THE DIFFICULTY IN THE STUDY OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY 1 THE PERIODS OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY 2 THE CAUSES OF THE DECAY OF THE CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 4 (a) The Internal Causes 4 (1) The Intellectual Methods were Self-Destructive 4 (2) The Standard of Truth became a Double Standard 5 (3) The Development of Mysticism 5 (4) The Doctrine of Nominalism 5 (b) The External Causes 6

Chapter Ii. the Renaissance (1453–1690) 8

THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE RENAISSANCE 8 (a) The New Man of the Renaissance 8 (b) The New Universe of the Renaissance 9 (1) The Transformation of the Physical Universe 9 (2) The Restoration of the World of Antiquity 10 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN HISTORY 11 MAP SHOWING THE DECENTRALIZATION OF EUROPE 13 THE TWO PERIODS OF THE RENAISSANCE: THE HUMANISTIC (1453–1600); THE NATURAL SCIENCE (1600–1690) 15 (a) The Similarities of the Two Periods 16 (b) The Differences of the Two Periods 16 (1) The Countries which participate in the Renaissance differ in the Two Periods 16 (2) The Intellectual Standards differ in the Two Periods 17 (3) The Scientific Methods in the Two Periods were Different 18 (4) The Attitude of the Church toward Science differs in the Two Periods 19 A BRIEF CONTRAST OF THE TWO PERIODS――A SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION ABOVE 21

Chapter Iii. the Humanistic Period of the Renaissance

(1453–1600) 22 THE LONG LIST OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE HUMANISTIC PERIOD 22 NICOLAS OF CUSA (1401–1464) 24 PARACELSUS (1493–1541) 25 GIORDANO BRUNO (1548–1600) 27 MAP SHOWING THE BIRTHPLACES OF THE CHIEF PHILOSOPHERS OF THE RENAISSANCE 30

Chapter Iv. the Natural Science Period of the Renaissance

(1600–1690) 31 THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE NATURAL SCIENCE PERIOD 31 THE MATHEMATICAL ASTRONOMERS 32 GALILEO GALILEI (1564–1641) 36 THE LIFE OF FRANCIS BACON, BARON VERULAM (1561–1626) 39 THE POSITION OF BACON IN PHILOSOPHY 39 THE AIM OF BACON 42 THE METHOD OF BACON 43 (a) Bacon’s Criticism of the Past 44 (b) Bacon’s Positive Construction 45 THE ENGLISH NATURAL SCIENCE MOVEMENT 46 THOMAS HOBBES AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 47 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF HOBBES (1588–1679) 49 1. As a Classical Scholar (1588–1628) 49 2. As Mathematician (1628–1638) 49 3. As Philosopher (1638–1651) 50 4. As Controversialist (1651–1668) 50 5. As Classical Scholar (1668–1679) 50 THE INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF HOBBES 50 1. His Premature Birth 50 2. His Father 51 3. The New Mathematical Science 52 THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE IN THE TEACHING OF HOBBES 52 THE METHOD OF HOBBES 54 THE KINDS OF BODIES 55 HOBBES’S APPLICATION OF THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY TO PSYCHOLOGY 56 HOBBES’S APPLICATION OF THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY TO POLITICS 58 THE RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND AFTER HOBBES 61

Chapter V. the Rationalism of the Natural Science Period

OF THE RENAISSANCE 62 THE NATURE OF RATIONALISM 62 THE MENTAL CONFLICT IN DESCARTES 65 THE LIFE AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF DESCARTES (1596–1650) 66 1. As Child and Student (1596–1613) 66 2. As Traveler (1613–1628) 66 3. As Writer (1629–1650) 67 4. In Stockholm (1649–1650) 67 THE TWO CONFLICTING INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF DESCARTES 67 THE METHOD OF DESCARTES 69 INDUCTION――PROVISIONAL DOUBT――THE ULTIMATE CERTAINTY OF CONSCIOUSNESS 70 DEDUCTION――THE IMPLICATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 72 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD 73 THE REALITY OF MATTER 75 GOD AND THE WORLD 77 THE RELATION OF GOD TO MATTER 77 THE RELATION OF GOD TO MINDS 78 THE RELATION OF MIND AND BODY 78 THE INFLUENCE OF DESCARTES 80 THE RELATION OF THE OCCASIONALISTS AND SPINOZA TO DESCARTES 81 PORTRAIT OF SPINOZA 84 THE HISTORICAL PLACE OF SPINOZA 84 THE INFLUENCES UPON SPINOZA 86 1. His Jewish Training 86 2. His Impulse from the New Science――Descartes’ Influence 86 3. His Acquaintance with the Collegiants 87 THE LIFE AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF SPINOZA (1632–1677) 88 1. In Israel (1632–1656) 89 2. In Retirement (1656–1663) 89 3. In the Public Eye (1663–1677) 90 THE METHOD OF SPINOZA 90 THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SPINOZA’S PHILOSOPHY 91 THREE CENTRAL PROBLEMS IN SPINOZA’S TEACHING 93 THE PANTHEISM OF SPINOZA――THE ALL-INCLUSIVENESS OF GOD 94 THE MYSTICISM OF SPINOZA 98 SPINOZA’S DOCTRINE OF SALVATION 102 SUMMARY OF SPINOZA’S TEACHING 106 LEIBNITZ AS THE FINISHER OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE FORERUNNER OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 107 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF LEIBNITZ (1646–1716) 108 1. Leipsic and University Life (1646–1666) 111 2. Mainz and Diplomacy (1666–1672) 111 3. Paris and Science (1672–1676) 111 4. Hanover and Philosophy (1676–1716) 112 THE THREE INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF LEIBNITZ 112 (1) His Early Classical Studies 112 (2) The New Science and his own Discoveries 113 (3) Political Pressure for Religious Reconciliation 114 THE METHOD OF LEIBNITZ 115 THE IMMEDIATE PROBLEM FOR LEIBNITZ 118 THE RESULT OF LEIBNITZ’S EXAMINATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE――A PLURALITY OF METAPHYSICAL SUBSTANCES 119 1. Leibnitz first scrutinized the Scientific Conception of Motion 119 2. Leibnitz next examined the Scientific Conception of the Atom 120 3. Leibnitz then identified Force with the Metaphysical Atom 121 THE DOUBLE NATURE OF THE MONADS 122 THE TWO FORMS OF LEIBNITZ’S CONCEPTION OF THE UNITY OF SUBSTANCES 125 THE INTRINSIC UNITY OF THE MONADS――THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNITY 125 THE SUPERIMPOSED UNITY OF THE MONADS――THE THEOLOGICAL UNITY 129

Chapter Vi. the Enlightenment (1690–1781) 132

THE EMERGENCE OF THE “NEW MAN”――INDIVIDUALISM 132 THE PRACTICAL PRESUPPOSITION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT――THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 134 THE METAPHYSICAL PRESUPPOSITION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 135 THE PROBLEMS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 135 (a) Utilitarian Problems 136 (b) Questions of Criticism 138 A COMPARISON OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN ENGLAND, FRANCE, AND GERMANY 140 THE MANY GROUPS OF PHILOSOPHERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 140 MAP SHOWING THE BIRTHPLACES OF SOME OF THE INFLUENTIAL THINKERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 144

Chapter Vii. John Locke 145

THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN 145 JOHN LOCKE, LIFE AND WRITINGS (1632–1704) 147 1. Student Life (1632–1666) 147 2. As Politician (1666–1683) 148 3. As Philosophical Author (1683–1691) 149 4. As Controversialist (1691–1704) 149 THE SOURCES OF LOCKE’S THOUGHT 150 1. His Puritan Ancestry 150 2. His Training in Tolerance 150 3. The Scientific Influence 151 4. The Political Influence 152 SUMMARY 153 THE PURPOSE OF LOCKE 153 TWO SIDES OF LOCKE’S PHILOSOPHY 155 (a) The Negative Side――Locke and Scholasticism 156 (b) The Positive Side――The New Psychology and Epistemology 157 LOCKE’S PSYCHOLOGY 158 LOCKE’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE 160 LOCKE’S PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY 162 THE INFLUENCE OF LOCKE 163 THE ENGLISH DEISTS 164 THE ENGLISH MORALISTS 166 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE ENGLISH MORALISTS 168

Chapter Viii. Berkeley and Hume 169

THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF GEORGE BERKELEY (1685–1753) 169 1. His Early Training (1685–1707) 169 2. As Author (1707–1721) 170 3. As Priest and Missionary (1721–1753) 171 THE INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF BERKELEY 172 THE PURPOSE OF BERKELEY 173 BERKELEY’S GENERAL RELATION TO LOCKE AND HUME 174 BERKELEY’S POINTS OF AGREEMENT WITH LOCKE 175 THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF BERKELEY’S PHILOSOPHY 176 1. As shown in General in his Analysis of Abstract Ideas 177 2. As shown in Particular in his Analysis of Matter 177 THE POSITIVE SIDE OF BERKELEY’S PHILOSOPHY 179 1. Esse est Percipi 179 2. The Existence of Mind is assumed by Berkeley 180 3. Spiritual Substances are Sufficient to explain all Ideas 181 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF DAVID HUME (1711–1776) 183 1. Period of Training (1711–1734) 184 2. Period of Philosopher (1734–1752) 185 3. Period of Politician (1752–1776) 185 INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF HUME 186 DOGMATISM, PHENOMENALISM, AND SKEPTICISM 187 THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS 189 THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS 191 THE ASSOCIATION OF CONTIGUITY 193 THE ASSOCIATION OF RESEMBLANCE 194 1. Mathematics 194 2. The Conception of Substance: Hume’s Attack on Theology 195 THE ASSOCIATION OF CAUSATION: HUME’S ATTACK ON SCIENCE 196 THE EXTENT AND LIMITS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 199 HUME’S THEORY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS 200 THE SCOTTISH SCHOOL 201

Chapter Ix. the Enlightenment in France and Germany 203

THE SITUATION IN FRANCE IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT 203 THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE IN FRANCE 206 THE TWO PERIODS OF THE FRENCH ENLIGHTENMENT 207 THE INTELLECTUAL ENLIGHTENMENT (1729–1762)――VOLTAIRE, MONTESQUIEU, AND THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS 208 VOLTAIRE (1694–1778) 209 THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS 211 THE SOCIAL ENLIGHTENMENT (1762–1789) 213 ROUSSEAU (1712–1778) 213 THE GERMAN ENLIGHTENMENT (1740–1781) 216 THE INTRODUCTORY PERIOD (1648–1740). ABSOLUTISM 217 1. The Rise of Prussia 218 2. The Early German Literature 219 3. The Pietistic Movement 219 4. The Transformation of Leibnitz’s Rationalism 220 SUMMARY OF THE LITERARY ENLIGHTENMENT OF GERMANY (1740–1781) 223 THE POLITICAL ENLIGHTENMENT OF GERMANY――FREDERICK THE GREAT 224 THE COURSE OF THE GERMAN ENLIGHTENMENT 226 LESSING 228

Chapter X. Kant 230

THE CONVERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES IN GERMANY 230 THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF GERMAN PHILOSOPHY 231 THE TWO PERIODS OF GERMAN PHILOSOPHY 232 THE INFLUENCES UPON KANT 233 1. Pietism 233 2. The Leibnitz-Wolffian Philosophy 233 3. The Physics of Newton 234 4. The Humanitarianism of Rousseau 234 5. The Skepticism of Hume 235 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF KANT (1724–1804) 235 THE PROBLEM OF KANT 238 THE METHOD OF KANT 239 THE THREEFOLD WORLD OF KANT――SUBJECTIVE STATES, THINGS-IN-THEMSELVES, AND PHENOMENA 240 THE WORLD OF KNOWLEDGE 243 THE PLACE OF SYNTHESIS IN KNOWLEDGE 245 THE JUDGMENTS INDISPENSABLE TO HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 248 THE PROOF OF THE VALIDITY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 252 1. In what does the Validity of Sense-♦Perception consist? 253 2. In what does the Validity of the Understanding consist? 255 HAS THE REASON BY ITSELF ANY VALIDITY? 260 THE IDEA OF THE SOUL 262 THE IDEA OF THE UNIVERSE 264 THE IDEA OF GOD 265 CONCLUSION 268 THE PROBLEM OF THE CRITIQUE OF PRACTICAL REASON: THE ETHICS OF KANT 269 THE MORAL LAW AND THE TWO QUESTIONS CONCERNING IT 271 1. The First Question concerning the Moral Law 272 2. The Second Question concerning the Moral Law 273 THE MORAL POSTULATES 275 1. The Postulate of Freedom 276 2. The Postulate of the Immortality of the Soul 276 3. The Postulate of the Existence of God 276

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