The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication, Vol. I.

CHAPTER I.. Domestic Dogs and Cats.

DOMESTIC DOGS AND CATS.

ANCIENT VARIETIES OF THE DOG--RESEMBLANCE OF DOMESTIC DOGS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES TO NATIVE CANINE SPECIES--ANIMALS NOT ACQUAINTED WITH MAN AT FIRST FEARLESS--DOGS RESEMBLING WOLVES AND JACKALS--HABIT OF BARKING ACQUIRED AND LOST--FERAL DOGS--TAN-COLOURED EYE-SPOTS--PERIOD OF GESTATION--OFFENSIVE ODOUR--FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN CROSSED--DIFFERENCES IN THE SEVERAL RACES IN PART DUE TO DESCENT FROM DISTINCT SPECIES--DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL AND TEETH--DIFFERENCES IN THE BODY, IN CONSTITUTION--FEW IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN FIXED BY SELECTION--DIRECT ACTION OF CLIMATE--WATER-DOGS WITH PALMATED FEET--HISTORY OF THE CHANGES WHICH CERTAIN ENGLISH RACES OF THE DOG HAVE GRADUALLY UNDERGONE THROUGH SELECTION--EXTINCTION OF THE LESS IMPROVED SUB-BREEDS.

CATS, CROSSED WITH SEVERAL SPECIES--DIFFERENT BREEDS FOUND ONLY IN SEPARATED COUNTRIES--DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE CONDITIONS OF LIFE--FERAL CATS--INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY ... Page 15

CHAPTER II.. Horses and Asses.

HORSES AND ASSES.

HORSE.--DIFFERENCES IN THE BREEDS--INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY OF--DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE CONDITIONS OF LIFE--CAN WITHSTAND MUCH COLD--BREEDS MUCH MODIFIED BY SELECTION--COLOURS OF THE HORSE--DAPPLING--DARK STRIPES ON THE SPINE, LEGS, SHOULDERS, AND FOREHEAD--DUN-COLOURED HORSES MOST FREQUENTLY STRIPED--STRIPES PROBABLY DUE TO REVERSION TO THE PRIMITIVE STATE OF THE HORSE.

ASSES.--BREEDS OF--COLOUR OF--LEG- AND SHOULDER-STRIPES--SHOULDER-STRIPES SOMETIMES ABSENT, SOMETIMES FORKED ... Page 49

CHAPTER III.. Pigs--Cattle--Sheep--Goats.

PIGS--CATTLE--SHEEP--GOATS.

PIGS BELONG TO TWO DISTINCT TYPES, SUS SCROFA AND INDICA--TORF-SCHWEIN--JAPAN PIG--FERTILITY OF CROSSED PIGS--CHANGES IN THE SKULL OF THE HIGHLY CULTIVATED RACES--CONVERGENCE OF CHARACTER--GESTATION--SOLID-HOOFED SWINE--CURIOUS APPENDAGES TO THE JAWS--DECREASE IN SIZE OF THE TUSKS--YOUNG PIGS LONGITUDINALLY STRIPED--FERAL PIGS--CROSSED BREEDS.

CATTLE.--ZEBU A DISTINCT SPECIES--EUROPEAN CATTLE PROBABLY DESCENDED FROM THREE WILD FORMS--ALL THE RACES NOW FERTILE TOGETHER--BRITISH PARK CATTLE--ON THE COLOUR OF THE ABORIGINAL SPECIES--CONSTITUTIONAL DIFFERENCES--SOUTH AFRICAN RACES--SOUTH AMERICAN RACES--NIATA CATTLE--ORIGIN OF THE VARIOUS RACES OF CATTLE. {iv}

SHEEP.--REMARKABLE RACES OF--VARIATIONS ATTACHED TO THE MALE SEX--ADAPTATIONS TO VARIOUS CONDITIONS--GESTATION OF--CHANGES IN THE WOOL--SEMI-MONSTROUS BREEDS.

GOATS.--REMARKABLE VARIATIONS OF ... Page 65

CHAPTER IV.. Domestic Rabbits.

DOMESTIC RABBITS.

DOMESTIC RABBITS DESCENDED FROM THE COMMON WILD RABBIT--ANCIENT DOMESTICATION--ANCIENT SELECTION--LARGE LOP-EARED RABBITS--VARIOUS BREEDS--FLUCTUATING CHARACTERS--ORIGIN OF THE HIMALAYAN BREED--CURIOUS CASE OF INHERITANCE--FERAL RABBITS IN JAMAICA AND THE FALKLAND ISLANDS--PORTO SANTO FERAL RABBITS--OSTEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS--SKULL--SKULL OF HALF-LOP RABBITS--VARIATIONS IN THE SKULL ANALOGOUS TO DIFFERENCES IN DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HARES--VERTEBRÆ--STERNUM--SCAPULA--EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON THE PROPORTIONS OF THE LIMBS AND BODY--CAPACITY OF THE SKULL AND REDUCED SIZE OF THE BRAIN--SUMMARY ON THE MODIFICATIONS OF DOMESTICATED RABBITS ... Page 103

CHAPTER V.. Domestic Pigeons.

DOMESTIC PIGEONS.

ENUMERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL BREEDS--INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY--VARIATIONS OF A REMARKABLE NATURE--OSTEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS: SKULL, LOWER JAW, NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ--CORRELATION OF GROWTH: TONGUE WITH BEAK; EYELIDS AND NOSTRILS WITH WATTLED SKIN--NUMBER OF WING-FEATHERS, AND LENGTH OF WING--COLOUR AND DOWN--WEBBED AND FEATHERED FEET--ON THE EFFECTS OF DISUSE--LENGTH OF FEET IN CORRELATION WITH LENGTH OF BEAK--LENGTH OF STERNUM, SCAPULA, AND FURCULA--LENGTH OF WINGS--SUMMARY ON THE POINTS OF DIFFERENCE IN THE SEVERAL BREEDS ... Page 131

CHAPTER VI.. Pigeons--_continued_.

PIGEONS--continued.

ON THE ABORIGINAL PARENT-STOCK OF THE SEVERAL DOMESTIC RACES--HABITS OF LIFE--WILD RACES OF THE ROCK-PIGEON--DOVECOT-PIGEONS--PROOFS OF THE DESCENT OF THE SEVERAL RACES FROM COLUMBA LIVIA--FERTILITY OF THE RACES WHEN CROSSED--REVERSION TO THE PLUMAGE OF THE WILD ROCK-PIGEON--CIRCUMSTANCES FAVOURABLE TO THE FORMATION OF THE RACES--ANTIQUITY AND HISTORY OF THE PRINCIPAL RACES--MANNER OF THEIR FORMATION--SELECTION--UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION--CARE TAKEN BY FANCIERS IN SELECTING THEIR BIRDS--SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT STRAINS GRADUALLY CHANGE INTO WELL-MARKED BREEDS--EXTINCTION OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS--CERTAIN BREEDS REMAIN PERMANENT, WHILST OTHERS CHANGE--SUMMARY ... Page 180

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CHAPTER VII.. Fowls.

FOWLS.

BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CHIEF BREEDS--ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF THEIR DESCENT FROM SEVERAL SPECIES--ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF ALL THE BREEDS HAVING DESCENDED FROM GALLUS BANKIVA---REVERSION TO THE PARENT-STOCK IN COLOUR--ANALOGOUS VARIATIONS--ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE FOWL--EXTERNAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SEVERAL BREEDS--EGGS--CHICKENS--SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS--WING- AND TAIL-FEATHERS, VOICE, DISPOSITION, ETC.--OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL, VERTEBRÆ, ETC.--EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON CERTAIN PARTS--CORRELATION OF GROWTH ... Page 225

CHAPTER VIII.

DUCKS--GOOSE--PEACOCK--TURKEY--GUINEA-FOWL--CANARY-BIRD--GOLD-FISH-- HIVE-BEES--SILK-MOTHS.

DUCKS, SEVERAL BREEDS OF--PROGRESS OF DOMESTICATION--ORIGIN OF, FROM THE COMMON WILD-DUCK--DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT BREEDS--OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES--EFFECTS OF USE AND DISUSE ON THE LIMB-BONES.

GOOSE, ANCIENTLY DOMESTICATED--LITTLE VARIATION OF--SEBASTOPOL BREED.

PEACOCK, ORIGIN OF BLACK-SHOULDERED BREED.

TURKEY, BREEDS OF--CROSSED WITH THE UNITED STATES SPECIES--EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON.

GUINEA-FOWL, CANARY-BIRD, GOLD-FISH, HIVE-BEES.

SILK-MOTHS, SPECIES AND BREEDS OF--ANCIENTLY DOMESTICATED--CARE IN THEIR SELECTION--DIFFERENCES IN THE DIFFERENT RACES--IN THE EGG, CATERPILLAR, AND COCOON STATES--INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS--IMPERFECT WINGS--LOST INSTINCTS--CORRELATED CHARACTERS ... Page 276

CHAPTER IX.. Cultivated Plants: Cereal and Culinary Plants.

CULTIVATED PLANTS: CEREAL AND CULINARY PLANTS.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE NUMBER AND PARENTAGE OF CULTIVATED PLANTS--FIRST STEPS IN CULTIVATION--GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

CEREALIA.--DOUBTS ON THE NUMBER OF SPECIES.--WHEAT: VARIETIES OF--INDIVIDUAL VARIABILITY--CHANGED HABITS--SELECTION--ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES.--MAIZE: GREAT VARIATION OF--DIRECT ACTION OF CLIMATE ON.

CULINARY PLANTS.--CABBAGES: VARIETIES OF, IN FOLIAGE AND STEMS, BUT NOT IN OTHER PARTS--PARENTAGE OF--OTHER SPECIES OF BRASSICA.--PEAS: AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE IN THE SEVERAL KINDS, CHIEFLY IN THE PODS AND SEED--SOME VARIETIES CONSTANT, SOME HIGHLY VARIABLE--DO NOT INTERCROSS.--BEANS.--POTATOES: NUMEROUS VARIETIES OF--DIFFERING LITTLE, EXCEPT IN THE TUBERS--CHARACTERS INHERITED ... Page 305

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CHAPTER X.. Plants _continued_--Fruits--Ornamental Trees--Flowers.

PLANTS continued--FRUITS--ORNAMENTAL TREES--FLOWERS.

FRUITS.--GRAPES--VARY IN ODD AND TRIFLING PARTICULARS.--MULBERRY.--THE ORANGE GROUP--SINGULAR RESULTS FROM CROSSING.--PEACH AND NECTARINE--BUD-VARIATION--ANALOGOUS VARIATION--RELATION TO THE ALMOND.--APRICOT.--PLUMS--VARIATION IN THEIR STONES.--CHERRIES--SINGULAR VARIETIES OF.--APPLE.--PEAR.--STRAWBERRY--INTERBLENDING OF THE ORIGINAL FORMS.--GOOSEBERRY--STEADY INCREASE IN SIZE OF THE FRUIT--VARIETIES OF.--WALNUT.--NUT.--CUCURBITACEOUS PLANTS--WONDERFUL VARIATION OF.

ORNAMENTAL TREES--THEIR VARIATION IN DEGREE AND KIND--ASH-TREE--SCOTCH-FIR--HAWTHORN.

FLOWERS--MULTIPLE ORIGIN OF MANY KINDS--VARIATION IN CONSTITUTIONAL PECULIARITIES--KIND OF VARIATION.--ROSES--SEVERAL SPECIES CULTIVATED.--PANSY.--DAHLIA.--HYACINTH, HISTORY AND VARIATION OF ... Page 332

CHAPTER XI.

ON BUD-VARIATION, AND ON CERTAIN ANOMALOUS MODES OF REPRODUCTION AND VARIATION.

BUD-VARIATIONS IN THE PEACH, PLUM, CHERRY, VINE, GOOSEBERRY, CURRANT, AND BANANA, AS SHOWN BY THE MODIFIED FRUIT--IN FLOWERS: CAMELLIAS, AZALEAS, CHRYSANTHEMUMS, ROSES, ETC.--ON THE RUNNING OF THE COLOUR IN CARNATIONS--BUD-VARIATIONS IN LEAVES--VARIATIONS BY SUCKERS, TUBERS, AND BULBS--ON THE BREAKING OF TULIPS--BUD-VARIATIONS GRADUATE INTO CHANGES CONSEQUENT ON CHANGED CONDITIONS OF LIFE--CYTISUS ADAMI, ITS ORIGIN AND TRANSFORMATION--ON THE UNION OF TWO DIFFERENT EMBRYOS IN ONE SEED--THE TRIFACIAL ORANGE--ON REVERSION BY BUDS IN HYBRIDS AND MONGRELS--ON THE PRODUCTION OF MODIFIED BUDS BY THE GRAFTING OF ONE VARIETY OR SPECIES ON ANOTHER--ON THE DIRECT OR IMMEDIATE ACTION OF FOREIGN POLLEN ON THE MOTHER-PLANT--ON THE EFFECTS IN FEMALE ANIMALS OF A FIRST IMPREGNATION ON THE SUBSEQUENT OFFSPRING--CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY ... Page 373

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. DUN DEVONSHIRE PONY, WITH SHOULDER, SPINAL, AND LEG STRIPES ... PAGE 56 2. HEAD OF JAPAN OR MASKED PIG ... 69 3. HEAD OF WILD BOAR, AND OF "GOLDEN DAYS," A PIG OF THE YORKSHIRE LARGE BREED ... 72 4. OLD IRISH PIG, WITH JAW-APPENDAGES ... 75 5. HALF-LOP RABBIT ... 108 6. SKULL OF WILD RABBIT ... 117 7. SKULL OF LARGE LOP-EARED RABBIT ... 117 8. PART OF ZYGOMATIC ARCH, SHOWING THE PROJECTING END OF THE MALAR-BONE, AND THE AUDITORY MEATUS, OF RABBITS ... 118 9. POSTERIOR END OF SKULL, SHOWING THE INTER-PARIETAL BONE, OF RABBITS ... 118 10. OCCIPITAL FORAMEN OF RABBITS ... 118 11. SKULL OF HALF-LOP RABBIT ... 119 12. ATLAS VERTEBRÆ OF RABBITS ... 121 13. THIRD CERVICAL VERTEBRÆ OF RABBITS ... 121 14. DORSAL VERTEBRÆ, FROM SIXTH TO TENTH INCLUSIVE, OF RABBITS ... 122 15. TERMINAL BONE OF STERNUM OF RABBITS ... 123 16. ACROMION OF SCAPULA OF RABBITS ... 123 17. THE ROCK-PIGEON, OR COLUMBIA LIVIA ... 135 18. ENGLISH POUTER ... 137 19. ENGLISH CARRIER ... 140 20. ENGLISH BARB ... 145 21. ENGLISH FANTAIL ... 147 22. AFRICAN OWL ... 149 23. SHORT-FACED ENGLISH TUMBLER ... 152 24. SKULLS OF PIGEONS, VIEWED LATERALLY ... 163 25. LOWER JAWS OF PIGEONS, SEEN FROM ABOVE ... 164 26. SKULL OF RUNT, SEEN FROM ABOVE ... 165 27. LATERAL VIEW OF JAWS OF PIGEONS ... 165 28. SCAPULÆ OF PIGEONS ... 167 29. FURCULÆ OF PIGEONS ... 167 30. SPANISH FOWL ... 226 31. HAMBURGH FOWL ... 228 32. POLISH FOWL ... 229 33. OCCIPITAL FORAMEN OF THE SKULLS OF FOWLS ... 261 {viii} 34. SKULLS OF FOWLS, VIEWED FROM ABOVE, A LITTLE OBLIQUELY ... 262 35. LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF SKULLS OF FOWLS, VIEWED LATERALLY ... 263 36. SKULL OF HORNED FOWL, VIEWED FROM ABOVE, A LITTLE OBLIQUELY ... 265 37. SIXTH CERVICAL VERTEBRÆ OF FOWLS, VIEWED LATERALLY ... 267 38. EXTREMITY OF THE FURCULA OF FOWLS, VIEWED LATERALLY ... 268 39. SKULLS OF DUCKS, VIEWED LATERALLY, REDUCED TO TWO-THIRDS OF THE NATURAL SIZE ... 282 40. CERVICAL VERTEBRÆ OF DUCKS, OF NATURAL SIZE ... 283 41. PODS OF THE COMMON PEA ... 328 42. PEACH AND ALMOND STONES, OF NATURAL SIZE, VIEWED EDGEWAYS ... 337 43. PLUM STONES, OF NATURAL SIZE, VIEWED LATERALLY ... 345

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THE

VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

UNDER DOMESTICATION.

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INTRODUCTION.

The object of this work is not to describe all the many races of animals which have been domesticated by man, and of the plants which have been cultivated by him; even if I possessed the requisite knowledge, so gigantic an undertaking would be here superfluous. It is my intention to give under the head of each species only such facts as I have been able to collect or observe, showing the amount and nature of the changes which animals and plants have undergone whilst under man's dominion, or which bear on the general principles of variation. In one case alone, namely in that of the domestic pigeon, I will describe fully all the chief races, their history, the amount and nature of their differences, and the probable steps by which they have been formed. I have selected this case, because, as we shall hereafter see, the materials are better than in any other; and one case fully described will in fact illustrate all others. But I shall also describe domesticated rabbits, fowls, and ducks, with considerable fullness.

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