The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. 05 (of 10)

Part I. Introduction, Aptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and a Portion of

Hymenoptera (Sessiliventres and Parasitica)

By DAVID SHARP, M.A. (Cantab.), M.B. (Edinb.), F.R.S.

London MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1895

All rights reserved

"Creavit in cœlo Angelos, in terra vermiculos: non superior in illis, non inferior in istis. Sicut enim nulla manus Angelum, ita nulla posset creare vermiculum."—SAINT AUGUSTINE, Liber soliloquiorum animae ad Deum, Caput IX.

CONTENTS

PAGE

SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK ix

PERIPATUS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION—EXTERNAL FEATURES—HABITS—BREEDING—ANATOMY—ALIMENTARY CANAL —NERVOUS SYSTEM—THE BODY WALL—THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM—THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM —THE VASCULAR SYSTEM—THE BODY CAVITY—NEPHRIDIA—GENERATIVE ORGANS —DEVELOPMENT—SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES—SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION 3

MYRIAPODA

CHAPTER II

INTRODUCTION—HABITS—CLASSIFICATION—STRUCTURE—CHILOGNATHA—CHILOPODA —SCHIZOTARSIA—SYMPHYLA—PAUROPODA—EMBRYOLOGY—PALAEONTOLOGY 29

INSECTA

CHAPTER III

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF INSECT LIFE—SOCIAL INSECTS—DEFINITION OF THE CLASS INSECTA—COMPOSITION OF INSECT SKELETON—NUMBER OF SEGMENTS—NATURE OF SCLERITES—HEAD—APPENDAGES OF THE MOUTH—EYES—THORAX—ENTOTHORAX—LEGS —WINGS—ABDOMEN OR HIND BODY—SPIRACLES—SYSTEMATIC ORIENTATION 83

CHAPTER IV

ARRANGEMENT OF INTERNAL ORGANS—MUSCLES—NERVOUS SYSTEM—GANGLIONIC CHAIN —BRAIN—SENSE-ORGANS—ALIMENTARY CANAL—MALPIGHIAN TUBES—RESPIRATION —TRACHEAL SYSTEM—FUNCTION OF RESPIRATION—BLOOD OR BLOOD-CHYLE—DORSAL VESSEL OR HEART—FAT-BODY—OVARIES—TESTES—PARTHENOGENESIS—GLANDS 114

CHAPTER V. Development

DEVELOPMENT

EMBRYOLOGY—EGGS—MICROPYLES—FORMATION OF EMBRYO—VENTRAL PLATE—ECTODERM AND ENDODERM—SEGMENTATION—LATER STAGES—DIRECT OBSERVATION OF EMBRYO —METAMORPHOSIS—COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE—INSTAR—HYPERMETAMORPHOSIS —METAMORPHOSIS OF INTERNAL ORGANS—INTEGUMENT—METAMORPHOSIS OF BLOWFLY —HISTOLYSIS—IMAGINAL DISCS—PHYSIOLOGY OF METAMORPHOSIS—ECDYSIS 143

CHAPTER VI

CLASSIFICATION—THE NINE ORDERS OF INSECTS—THEIR CHARACTERS—PACKARD'S ARRANGEMENT—BRAUER'S CLASSIFICATION—CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON METAMORPHOSIS—SUPER-ORDERS—THE SUBDIVISIONS OF ORDERS 171

CHAPTER VII

THE ORDER APTERA—DEFINITION—CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS—THYSANURA—CAMPODEA —JAPYX—MACHILIS—LEPISMA—DIVERSITY OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE IN THYSANURA —ECTOTROPHI AND ENTOTROPHI—COLLEMBOLA—LIPURIDAE—PODURIDAE —SMYNTHURIDAE—THE SPRING—THE VENTRAL TUBE—ABDOMINAL APPENDAGES —PROSTEMMATIC ORGAN—TRACHEAL SYSTEM—ANURIDA MARITIMA—COLLEMBOLA ON SNOW—LIFE-HISTORIES OF COLLEMBOLA—FOSSIL APTERA—APTERYGOGENEA —ANTIQUITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF CAMPODEA 180

CHAPTER VIII

ORTHOPTERA—FORFICULIDAE, EARWIGS—HEMIMERIDAE 198

CHAPTER IX

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—BLATTIDAE, COCKROACHES 220

CHAPTER X

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—MANTIDAE, SOOTHSAYERS 242

CHAPTER XI

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—PHASMIDAE, WALKING-LEAVES, STICK-INSECTS 260

CHAPTER XII

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—ACRIDIIDAE, LOCUSTS, GRASSHOPPERS 279

CHAPTER XIII

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—LOCUSTIDAE, GREEN GRASSHOPPERS, KATYDIDS 311

CHAPTER XIV

ORTHOPTERA CONTINUED—GRYLLIDAE, CRICKETS 330

CHAPTER XV

NEUROPTERA—MALLOPHAGA—EMBIIDAE 341

CHAPTER XVI

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—TERMITIDAE, TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS 356

CHAPTER XVII

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—PSOCIDAE (BOOK-LICE AND DEATH-WATCHES)—THE FIRST FAMILY OF AMPHIBIOUS NEUROPTERA (PERLIDAE, STONE-FLIES) 390

CHAPTER XVIII

AMPHIBIOUS NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—ODONATA, DRAGON-FLIES 409

CHAPTER XIX

AMPHIBIOUS NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—EPHEMERIDAE, MAY-FLIES 429

CHAPTER XX

NEUROPTERA PLANIPENNIA—SIALIDAE, ALDER-FLIES, SNAKE-FLIES—PANORPIDAE, SCORPION-FLIES—HEMEROBIIDAE, ANT-LIONS, LACEWINGS, ETC. 444

CHAPTER XXI

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—TRICHOPTERA, THE PHRYGANEIDAE OR CADDIS-FLIES 473

CHAPTER XXII

HYMENOPTERA—HYMENOPTERA SESSILIVENTRES—CEPHIDAE—ORYSSIDAE—SIRICIDAE —TENTHREDINIDAE OR SAWFLIES 487

CHAPTER XXIII

HYMENOPTERA PETIOLATA—PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA—CYNIPIDAE OR GALL-FLIES —PROCTOTRYPIDAE—CHALCIDIDAE—ICHNEUMONIDAE—BRACONIDAE—STEPHANIDAE —MEGALYRIDAE—EVANIIDAE—PELECINIDAE—TRIGONALIDAE 519

INDEX 567

SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION (RECENT FORMS) ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK

PROTOTRACHEATA

PERIPATUS (p. 1)

MYRIAPODA

Order. Family.

CHILOGNATHA POLYXENIDAE (p. 43). (= DIPLOPODA) GLOMERIDAE (p. 43). SPHAEROTHERIIDAE (p. 43). JULIDAE (p. 43). BLANJULIDAE (p. 44). CHORDEUMIDAE (p. 44). POLYDESMIDAE (p. 44). POLYZONIIDAE (p. 44).

CHILOPODA LITHOBIIDAE (p. 45). SCOLOPENDRIDAE (p. 45). NOTOPHILIDAE (p. 45). GEOPHILIDAE (p. 46).

SCHIZOTARSIA CERMATIIDAE (= SCUTIGERIDAE) (p. 46).

SYMPHYLA. SCOLOPENDRELLIDAE (p. 46).

PAUROPODA PAUROPIDAE (p. 47).

INSECTA

Order. Division, Series, Family. or Sub-Order.

APTERA THYSANURA CAMPODEIDAE (p. 183). (p. 180) (p. 182) JAPYGIDAE (p. 184). MACHILIDAE (p. 184). LEPISMIDAE (p. 185).

COLLEMBOLA LIPURIDAE (p. 190). (p. 189) PODURIDAE (p. 190). SMYNTHURIDAE (p. 191).

Order. Division, Series, Family. Tribe or or Sub-Order. Sub-Family.

ORTHOPTERA ORTHOPTERA FORFICULIDAE (p. 202). (p. 198) CURSORIA HEMIMERIDAE (p. 217).

BLATTIDAE Ectobiides. (p. 220) Phyllodromiides. Nyctiborides. Epilamprides. Periplanetides. Panchlorides. Blaberides. Corydiides. Oxyhaloides. Perisphaeriides. Panesthiides. ? Geoscapheusides.

MANTIDAE Amorphoscelides. (p. 242) Orthoderides. Mantides. Harpagides. Vatides. Empusides.

PHASMIDAE Lonchodides. (p. 260) Bacunculides. Bacteriides. Necroscides. Clitumnides. Acrophyllides. Cladomorphides. Anisomorphides. Phasmides. Aschipasmides. Bacillides. Phylliides.

ORTHOPTERA ACRIDIIDAE Tettigides. SALTATORIA (p. 279) Pneumorides. Mastacides. Proscopiides. Tryxalides. Oedipodides. Pyrgomorphides. Pamphagides. Acridiides.

LOCUSTIDAE Phaneropterides. (p. 311) Meconemides. Mecopodides. Prochilides. Pseudophyllides. Conocephalides. Tympanophorides. Sagides. Locustides. Decticides. Callimenides. Ephippigerides. Hetrodides. Gryllacrides. Stenopelmatides.

GRYLLIDAE Tridactylides. (p. 330) Gryllotalpides. Myrmecophilides. Gryllides. Oecanthides. Trigonidiides. Eneopterides.

Order. Division, Series, Family. Tribe or Group. or Sub-Order. Sub-Family.

NEUROPTERA MALLOPHAGA Leiotheides. (p. 345) Philopterides.

PSEUDO- EMBIIDAE (p. 351). NEUROPTERA TERMITIDAE (p. 356). PSOCIDAE (p. 390).

NEUROPTERA PERLIDAE (p. 398). AMPHIBIO- TICA ODONATA Anisopterides Gomphinae. (p. 409) Cordulegasterinae. Aeschninae. Corduliinae. Libellulinae. Zygopterides Calepteryginae. Agrioninae.

EPHEMERIDAE (p. 429).

NEUROPTERA SIALIDAE Sialides PLANIPENNIA (p. 444) Raphidiides.

PANORPIDAE (p. 449).

HEMEROBIIDAE Myrmeleonides (p. 454). (p. 453) Ascalaphides Holophthalmi. (p. 459) Schizophthalmi. Nemopterides (p. 462). Mantispides (p. 463). Hemerobiides Dilarina. (p. 465) Nymphidina. Osmylina. Hemerobiina. Chrysopides (p. 469). Coniopterygides (p. 471).

TRICHOPTERA PHRYGANEIDAE Phryganeides (p. 480). (p. 473) Limnophilides (p. 481). Sericostomatides (p. 482). Leptocerides (p. 482). Hydropsychides (p. 482). Rhyacophilides (p. 483). Hydroptilides (p. 484).

HYMENOPTERA HYMENOPTERA CEPHIDAE (p. 504). (p. 487) SESSILI- ORYSSIDAE (p. 506). VENTRES SIRICIDAE (p. 507). TENTHREDINIDAE (p. 510).

HYMENOPTERA CYNIPIDAE (p. 523). PETIOLATA PROCTOTRYPIDAE (p. 533). (part) CHALCIDIDAE (p. 539). ICHNEUMONIDAE (p. 551). BRACONIDAE (p. 558). STEPHANIDAE (p. 561). MEGALYRIDAE (p. 562). EVANIIDAE (p. 562). PELECINIDAE (p. 563). TRIGONALIDAE (p. 564).

(To be continued in Vol. VI.)

PERIPATUS

ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

{3}CHAPTER I

PERIPATUS

INTRODUCTION–EXTERNAL FEATURES–HABITS–BREEDING–ANATOMY–ALIMENTARY CANAL– NERVOUS SYSTEM–THE BODY WALL–THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM–THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM–THE VASCULAR SYSTEM–THE BODY CAVITY–NEPHRIDIA–GENERATIVE ORGANS–DEVELOPMENT– SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES–SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION.

The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by Guilding, who first obtained specimens of it from St. Vincent in the Antilles. He regarded it as a Mollusc, being no doubt deceived by the slug-like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens were subsequently obtained from other parts of the Neotropical region and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal was variously assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Annelida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system, as a primitive member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874 by Moseley, who discovered the tracheae. The genus has been monographed by Sedgwick, who has also written an account of the development of the Cape species. A bibliography will be found in Sedgwick's Monograph.

{4}There can be no doubt that Peripatus is an Arthropod, for it possesses the following features, all characteristic of that group, and all of first-class morphological importance: (1) The presence of appendages modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia perforating the wall of the heart and putting its cavity in communication with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular body cavity and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a perivisceral section of the coelom. Finally, the tracheae, though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda, are found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very important additional reason for uniting Peripatus with it.

Peripatus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such important respects from all the old-established Arthropod classes, that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called Prototracheata, has had to be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other Arthropoda is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it presents, but in part to the presence of the following peculiar features: (1) The number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures; (2) the restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the disposition of the generative organs; (4) the texture of the skin; and (5) the simplicity and similarity of all the segments of the body behind the head.

The Annelidan affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a manner by the thinness of the cuticle, the dermo-muscular body wall, the hollow appendages, that, as already stated, many of the earlier zoologists who examined Peripatus placed it amongst the segmented worms; and the discovery that there is some solid morphological basis for this determination constitutes one of the most interesting points of the recent work on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (1) The paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind the first two (Saenger, Balfour); (2) the presence of cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true that neither of these features are absolutely distinctive of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with the Annelidan disposition of the chief systems of organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main vascular trunk or heart, may be considered as indicating affinities in that {5}direction. Peripatus, therefore, is zoologically of extreme interest from the fact that, though in the main Arthropodan, it possesses features which are possessed by no other Arthropod, and which connect it to the group to which the Arthropoda are in the general plan of their organisation most closely related. It must, therefore, according to our present lights, be regarded as a very primitive form; and this view of it is borne out by its extreme isolation at the present day. Peripatus stands absolutely alone as a kind of half-way animal between the Arthropoda and Annelida. There is no gradation of structure within the genus; the species are very limited in number, and in all of them the peculiar features above mentioned are equally sharply marked.

Peripatus, though a lowly organised animal, and of remarkable sluggishness, with but slight development of the higher organs of sense, with eyes the only function of which is to enable it to avoid the light—though related to those animals most repulsive to the aesthetic sense of man, animals which crawl upon their bellies and spit at, or poison, their prey—is yet, strange to say, an animal of striking beauty. The exquisite sensitiveness and constantly changing form of the antennae, the well-rounded plump body, the eyes set like small diamonds on the side of the head, the delicate feet, and, above all, the rich colouring and velvety texture of the skin, all combine to give these animals an aspect of quite exceptional beauty. Of all the species which I have seen alive, the most beautiful are the dark green individuals of Capensis, and the species which I have called Balfouri. These animals, so far as skin is concerned, are not surpassed in the animal kingdom. I shall never forget my astonishment and delight when on bearing away the bark of a rotten tree-stump in the forest on Table Mountain, I first came upon one of these animals in its natural haunts, or when Mr. Trimen showed me in confinement at the South African Museum a fine fat, full-grown female, accompanied by her large family of thirty or more just-born but pretty young, some of which were luxuriously creeping about on the beautiful skin of their mother's back.

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