Part 42

The White Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum) is one of the largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant in dry pastures all over Britain. The plant is generally smooth; and its erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks; and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. The flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. The bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc florets numerous and tubular. The flowers bloom from June to August.

Our last composite flower is the Sneezewort (Achillea Ptarmica), which is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of Britain. It has an erect stem, one to two feet high. The leaves are sessile, narrow, with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. The flower-heads are arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. Each is surrounded by an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short, broad, white florets of the ray. The time of flowering is July and August.

The Common Centaury (Erythræa Centaurium), of the order Gentianaceæ, is a very common plant in dry pastures. Its stem is erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely placed below, narrow and more distant above. The flowers are rose-red or pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes.

Of the order Convolvulaceæ we shall note one species--the Small Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), so well known as a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. It has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem, from a few inches to two feet in length, that sometimes climbs, but more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. The leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with sharp, spreading lobes at the base. The axillary peduncles are usually forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. The calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. The plant flowers from June to August.

The Meadow Clary (Salvia pratensis--order Labiatæ), shown on Plate IV, Fig. 6, is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only in the dry fields of Oxfordshire, Kent, Surrey, and the extreme south-west of England; but it is one of the most handsome of the Labiates. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled; and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones sessile. The flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike. The calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which has often three small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. There are two stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it rocks. This plant flowers from June to August.

The peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in itself to distinguish the genus Salvia from all the other Labiates, and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in studying it before passing on to other species. In the first place it should be mentioned that the stamens of Salvia are mature before the stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. The lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. Each one, however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in the middle, form a little hole. When a bee visits the flower, it alights on the lower lip of the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. In doing this it pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they are ripe, to deposit some pollen. After the pollen has been thus removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma, which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee. Thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and cross-fertilisation is the result.

The Common Marjoram (Origanum vulgare) is an aromatic plant that often grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone and chalky districts. Its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed, downy, and about an inch in length. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. The overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very hairy in the throat; the corolla is about twice the length of the calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the other. It will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no stamens.

In the same order (Labiatæ) there is the Self-Heal (Prunella vulgaris), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from July to the end of the summer. The lower portion of the stem of this plant usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled flowers immediately above the last pair. The lipped corolla is of a violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. During the flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches.

Coming now to the Plantains (order Plantaginaceæ) we have two species to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. One is the Greater Plantain (Plantago major)--a very low plant, with a short, thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves with grooved stalks. These leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long, and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which converge into the stalk at the base. Each little flower of the long, slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. The fruit is a small capsule which splits transversely when ripe. The plant flowers from June to August.

The other is the Ribwort Plantain (P. lanceolata), a somewhat similar plant, the leaves of which are narrow, tapering at both ends, with three or five strong, parallel ribs. Each flower-stalk bears a globular or oval spike from half an inch to an inch in length. This species also flowers from June to August.

There are a few summer-flowering species of Orchids that are more or less common in fields and pastures. One of these is the Marsh Orchis (Orchis latifolia), a plant so closely resembling the Spotted Orchis (p. 277) that it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the latter. Its tubers are palmately divided; and its stem, which is hollow, is usually from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are large, sometimes spotted; and the spike of flowers is large, with leafy bracts longer than the ovaries. The flowers vary in colour from white to a deep purple, have a spur usually thicker than that of the Spotted Orchis, and a lip indistinctly divided into three lobes, with its sides curved backwards. The flower, which is represented on Plate VI, grows in moist meadows, marshes, and on moors, flowering during June and July.

Another species--the Butterfly Orchis (Habenaria bifolia)--has (usually) undivided tubers; a stem from six to twelve inches high with two broad leaves near the base, and surrounded below by a few sheathing scales; and a rather loose spike of white or greenish flowers with narrow bracts about as long as the ovaries. The petals and upper sepals are arched, the lateral sepals spreading, the lip narrow and undivided, and the spur about twice as long as the ovary. This flower is not uncommon in moist meadows, where it blooms from June to August. A large variety, with greener flowers, is sometimes known as the Great Butterfly Orchis.

A considerable number of summer-flowering grasses are more or less common in fields and meadows. We have not space for the descriptions of these, but introduce illustrations of a few, including the Cock's-foot Grass (Dactylis glomerata) which appears on Plate IV.

BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES--SUMMER

The Crowfoot group of the Ranunculaceæ contains two bog-plants popularly known as Spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. One of these--the Lesser Spearwort (Ranunculus Flammula)--is abundant in wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its buttercup-like flowers may be seen from June to September. It is a slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at the base, from four to twelve inches high. Its leaves are narrow-oval in form, stalked, and either slightly toothed or quite entire; and the yellow flowers are about half an inch in diameter, on long peduncles.

The other is the Greater Spearwort (R. Lingua), a much larger species, varying from two to four feet in height, and flowering during the same months. It has stout, hollow, erect stems which throw off whorls of root fibres from the lowest joints; and the glossy, yellow flowers vary from one to one and a half inches in diameter. This species is not nearly so common as the other, but occurs more or less in most parts of Britain.

Taking next the cruciferous plants (Cruciferæ), we have first to note a few species of the Nasturtium genus, including the Water-cress and the Yellow-cress. These are all smooth plants, with small yellow or white flowers. They may be distinguished from other crucifers by their loose calyx; simple, rounded stigma on a very short style; and their oblong or narrow pods with the seeds arranged in two rows on each side of the membranous partition. The species with which we are at present concerned are:--

1. The Water-cress (Nasturtium officinale).--A succulent plant, with a branched stem rooting at the base, growing freely in ditches, shallow streams and muddy places, and flowering from May or June to the end of the summer. Its leaves are pinnately divided into from seven to eleven wavy or slightly-toothed segments, the terminal one of which is usually larger than the others and nearly round. The flowers are small, white, in short, crowded racemes; and the pods are spreading, more than half an inch long.

2. The Marsh Yellow Cress (N. palustre), common in muddy places.--A slender plant with a fibrous root, and pinnate leaves with irregularly-toothed segments which are smaller towards the base. The flowers are yellow, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, with petals no longer than the sepals. They bloom from June to September. The pods are oblong, swollen, slightly curved, a quarter of an inch long.

3. The Amphibious Yellow Cress (N. amphibium).--An erect plant, two or three feet high, with fibrous root and creeping runners, flowering from June to September, moderately common on the banks of muddy streams. Its leaves are narrow-oblong, three or four inches long, deeply toothed, or cut into narrow lobes; and the flowers are yellow, similar to those of the other species, and similarly arranged, but with petals twice as long as the sepals. The pods are broad, only about a sixth of an inch long, with a rather long style.

In the marshes of the South of England we may often see the Marsh Mallow (Malva officinalis or Althæa officinalis), of the order Malvaceæ, flowering during August and September. Its stem is hairy, with erect flowering branches two or three feet high; and the leaves are shortly stalked, thick, velvety, broadly ovate, and sometimes divided into three or five lobes. The flowers are shortly stalked in the axils of the upper leaves, or sometimes collected into a terminal raceme. Round each one is a whorl of several narrow bracts, shorter than the calyx, and united at their bases. The calyx is five-lobed; and the corolla consists of five broad, rose-coloured petals. This plant is shown on Plate V, Fig. 4.

The Marsh St. John's-wort (Hypericum Elodes--order Hypericaceæ) is a somewhat shaggy little plant, common in the bogs of many parts of Britain, more especially in West England and Ireland. It varies from a few inches to a foot in length; with prostrate stems rooting at the base; and rounded, opposite leaves without stipules. Both stem and leaves are clothed with white, woolly hairs, the latter on both surfaces. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a pale yellow colour, and form a few-flowered, terminal panicle. They have five small, oval sepals, fringed with little red-stalked glands; five petals, about three times as long as the sepals; and many stamens, united to more than half way up into three bundles. (See Plate V, Fig. 6.)

The Blue Marsh Vetchling or Marsh Pea (Lathyrus palustris--order Leguminosæ) is occasionally to be met with in boggy places, flowering from June to August. It is a smooth plant, with a weak, winged stem, two or three feet long; and pinnate leaves consisting of from two to four pairs of narrow, sharp leaflets, and terminating in a branched tendril. At the base of each leafstalk are two narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are of a bluish purple colour, and are arranged in one-sided racemes, of from two to six flowers on long stalks. The pods are smooth and about an inch in length. This plant is represented on Plate V, Fig. 5.

Some of the Willow-herbs (Onagraceæ) are very partial to wet and boggy places. A few species of other habitats are described in Chapters X and XI, and these, together with the members that come within the range of the present chapter, are readily distinguished by their willow-like leaves and the very long inferior ovaries of their flowers. We shall here note three species--

1. The Great Hairy Willow-herb or Codlins and Cream (Epilobium hirsutum).--A large, erect, hairy plant, from three to six feet high, with numerous underground suckers, and a stout, round, branched stem. Its leaves are opposite, sessile, often clasping the stem, narrow, and finely toothed. The flowers are nearly an inch in diameter, of a deep rose colour, arranged in terminal, leafy racemes. They have four broad, notched, spreading petals; eight erect stamens; and a four-lobed stigma. The plant is common in wet places, and flowers during July and August.

2. The Narrow-leaved or Marsh Willow-herb (E. palustre).--A smaller plant, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in height, frequent in bogs and marshes, flowering during June and July. Its stem is round, with two lines of downy hairs on opposite sides; and its leaves are sessile, opposite, very narrow, tapering towards the base, and sometimes slightly toothed. The flowers are small, pink, nodding when in bud, arranged in a terminal raceme. Both flowers and fruit resemble those of the last species except that the stigmas of the former are not divided.

3. The Square-stalked Willow-herb (E. tetragonum or E. adnatum).--A similar plant, from one to two feet high, common in bogs and ditches, and easily distinguished from other species of the genus by the four angles of the stem formed by the downward continuation of the margins of the leaves. The flowers are small, in terminal, leafy racemes, and erect when in bud. The petals are of a rose-pink colour, deeply notched; and the stigma is not divided. This species flowers in July and August.

Our next flower is the beautiful Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria--order Lythraceæ), which is abundant in the marshes, ditches, and wet places of most parts of Great Britain. It has a creeping rootstock; a stout, erect, slightly-branched, four-angled stem, from two to four feet high; and sessile, narrow, clasping, entire, acute leaves, two or three inches long, arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of three or four. The flowers are of a reddish purple or pink colour, nearly an inch across, arranged in whorls on a long, tapering, leafy spike. They have a toothed and ribbed, tubular calyx, with broad inner, and narrow outer segments; oblong, wavy, wrinkled petals; twelve stamens in two whorls of different lengths; and a superior ovary. The time of flowering of this species is July to September.