An Epitome of Electricity & Galvanism

SECTION I.. _electricity As Known Among the Ancients._

Electricity as known among the Ancients.

In examining the progress of almost any branch of human knowledge, curiosity must meet with many repulses. By the time the attention of society is attracted to the accumulation of detached truths, which compose a science, it is often impossible to retrace its history. The real origin of most discoveries is obscured by antiquity, their authors have already sunk into oblivion, and important improvements are ascribed to different inventors.

Electricity is however oppressed by few of these difficulties. With the exception of some small discoveries mentioned by ancient authors, this science derives its origin and all its improvements from the two last centuries. Neither is the historian perplexed in giving every invention to its proper author. Those who cultivated this science were commonly men of talents and condition; they pursued it with ability and perseverance; and either themselves published the result of their observations, or deposited them in those literary institutions which they found established in their country. The historian of electricity, therefore, with no extraordinary exertion of industry or talent, may fully collect and accurately arrange the materials of his work.

On the subject of electricity nothing earlier is on record than the observation of Thales, that yellow amber, when rubbed, has the property of attracting light bodies.—So struck was he with this property of amber, that he imagined it was animated.

Thales, the contemporary of Pythagoras, was born at Miletus, a city of Ionia, about six hundred years before Christ. Like all the Grecian sages, he travelled into Egypt; lived in that country a number of years; contracted friendships with the priests, then the depositories of science; and became deeply skilled in all their mysteries and learning. Returning to his own country, stored with the knowledge of the East, he was ranked as the first of the seven wise men of Greece, and became the founder of the Ionic school, as Pythagoras did of the Italic.

It may deserve remark that the same philosopher who is recorded to have observed the first phenomenon in electricity, is also said to have discovered the cause of thunder and lightning. We shall give to the curious, the remarkable passage containing this account, as we find it in Apuleius, a learned and eloquent writer of the second century, while he is rapidly enumerating the discoveries of Thales.

Thales Milesius ex septem illis sapientia memoratis viris facile præcipuus: fuit enim geometricæ penes Grajos primus repertor, et naturæ rerum certissimus explorator, et astrorum peritissimus contemplator, maximas res parvis lineis reperit, temporum ambitus, ventorum flatus, stellarum meatus, tonitruum sonora miracula, siderum obliqua curricula, Solis annula reverticula; idem Lunæ vel nascentis incrementa, vel senescentis dispendia, vel delinquentis obstacula.

“Thales the Milesian was decisively the most eminent of the seven famous sages; for he was the first inventor of geometry among the Greeks, the most judicious inquirer into nature, and the most skilful observer of the stars; he made great discoveries by small geometrical lines, the regulation of times and seasons, the theory of the winds, the course of the stars, the wonderful causes of thunder, the oblique motions of the planets, the annual revolution of the sun, the reason of the increase, decrease, and eclipse of the moon.”

Though it is no where expressly affirmed that electricity was discovered by Thales to be the cause of thunder, yet when the two facts are placed together, they will furnish an additional argument to those writers who contend that the ancients knew much more than we are willing to allow them of those shining truths, which are the peculiar boast of modern ages. Nor should this early discovery, if we could admit it to be real, excite our surprise. Whatever hindrances might impede the progress of the ancients in other branches of knowledge, from the abstruse nature of the subject, or the want of necessary helps, it may rather excite our wonder, that the effects of electricity should remain so long unobserved. The electric fluid is no local or occasional agent; it is coeval with the world; its presence pervades every substance; it is the principal cause of the grandest scenes in nature, and its operations can hardly fail to show themselves wherever bodies are concerned.

From the time of Thales, there is a chasm in the history of electricity for three hundred years. Indeed, natural science of all kind appears to have languished, during this period. Theophrastus, who flourished 371 years before Christ, the disciple and successor of Aristotle, and he to whom the learned are indebted for the preservation of his master’s works, then adds one more fact to the history of electricity.

In his treatise on stones, after speaking of the attractive power of amber, found on the coast of Liguria, he goes on to ascribe the same properties to the lapis lyncurius, the same substance now called tourmaline. “It possesses (says he) an attractive power like amber: and as they say attracts not only straws and leaves, but copper also, and iron, if in small particles.”

These two discoveries of Thales and Theophrastus are all, on the subject of electricity, that industry has been able clearly to collect from the barren records of antiquity. Pliny indeed has observed that “amber being rubbed with the fingers, and having thereby become warmed, attracts to itself straws and dried leaves, in the same manner as the magnet does iron.” He also attributes to the Lyncurium the same properties.—Solinus and Priscian, also, make similar statements. But as these are no more than what Thales and Theophrastus had remarked before, they are to be considered only as a repetition of what the preceding writers had made known, not as any addition to the information possessed on this subject. In like manner it might be mentioned that Aristotle, Pliny, Oppian and Claudius, were fully acquainted with the benumbing effects produced by the touch of the Torpedo; but as they do not appear to have suspected that these effects were produced by electricity, they cannot be considered as communicating or possessing any additional knowledge in regard to this powerful agent.

On subjects which regard taste, or which address themselves to the imagination, on poetry, eloquence and the fine arts, it is to the ancients we are to look for information and the models of perfection. But on the various branches of knowledge which depend on observation, on experiment, on investigation, which comprehend all the parts of mechanical philosophy, the philosophers of antiquity afford little that is either new or just. Hurried away by the vivacity of their genius, which their peculiar complexion invited them to cultivate, and the particular circumstances of the age were calculated to inflame, they investigated facts, not that by accumulated discoveries they might lay the foundation of solid science, but so far only as they served to support or illustrate some favourite hypothesis.

Aristotle, to whose profound and elevated genius we are accustomed to turn for satisfactory information on so many other subjects, affords no remarks on electricity, and little worthy of observation on most of the branches of natural science. One, who on this point has a right to speak, observes.—“That though there are several very sublime questions in his physics, which he clears up in a very masterly way, yet the main, the gross of the work is good for nothing, infelix operis summa.”

From the time of Theophrastus till the beginning of the 17th century of the christian æra, there is no unequivocal evidence that in the science of electricity any discovery or improvement was made, except the solitary and unimportant fact that jet, and perhaps agate, is endued with the same power as amber, of attracting and repelling light bodies.—Nor is it ascertained by whom, or at what particular period, this fact was added to the slender stock of electrical knowledge which was then possessed. And thus it appears that for the space of about 1900 years, the part of philosophy, of which we trace the history, was nearly stationary.

SECTION II.. _electricity As Known to the Moderns._

Electricity as known to the Moderns.

Having seen, in the preceding section, the very limited knowledge of electricity possessed by the ancients, we now come to give an account of what may properly be called its real origin, and to trace its progress to the present day. In doing this, we shall be careful to note all the original authors who have touched upon this subject; and to exhibit most of their discoveries.

We believe it to be generally the case, that, in the earlier periods of a science, the mind is curious to observe the gradual developement of principles, and the gradual increase of facts, however unimportant these facts may afterwards appear. But as the science progresses, as the ground widens and observations multiply, this curiosity proportionably abates, and we require of the historian selection rather than detail.

However minute, therefore, the history of the first stages of this branch of philosophy must be, the after periods will exact only a careful selection of those more prominent discoveries, which show the advances of the science and mark its gradations.

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