Part 2

As far as local species are concerned, the various mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma: the tiger, spotted, and small-mouthed salamanders) seem to do well in captivity. They may live a long time (up to 10 or 12 years for some). They are large (hence, will eat food that is more available), and they do not require a special temperature range.

The central newt, Notophthalmus v. louisianensis, which is locally common, or the red-spotted newt, N. v. viridescens, which is sold in pet stores, are rather hardy, if kept properly. The mudpuppy and hellbender may do well, but they require considerably more space, and should be given a few flat rocks to hide under.

The smaller salamanders of Missouri are on the whole delicate and require cool temperatures. The best one to try to keep for a while in captivity is the slimy salamander, Plethodon g. glutinosus. The rest of the smaller salamanders (genus Plethodon and Eurycea) are usually difficult to maintain. If you do secure some of these, it is recommended that they be kept a short time for observation, and then released in the same area where they were taken.

Remember: several species of Missouri salamanders are protected by the Missouri Conservation Department. If you plan to collect your own specimens, be sure to follow all laws of the Conservation Dept. No animal can be collected in a state or national park, or taken from any cave.

Housing Your Captive Salamanders.

1. Terrestrial (land) species. The first consideration for keeping terrestrial forms is proper moisture. The home terrarium with deep soil and rooted plants is very good for many salamanders, but it affords too many hiding places, and you may never see your specimens.

A 1 to 2 inch layer of soil (1/3 black dirt, 1/3 peat moss, 1/3 fine sand) works very well for most land salamanders (mole salamanders, slimy salamanders, and the California newt). A few flat rocks or slabs of bark, or some dead leaves will furnish hiding places, and a small, shallow water dish should be provided. A 5- or 10-gallon aquarium would be about the right size for keeping several salamanders. Painting the sides and back with black or dark brown paint will furnish them with added security. Never crowd too many salamanders into a small aquarium. In the wild you seldom see more than one or two individuals in any one hiding place.

The soil mixture should be changed every 2 to 3 weeks, because it will tend to sour from your captive's excrement.

As far as lighting your vivarium, it is not necessary for the salamanders. They are all nocturnal, and shy away from any direct light. Thus, too much light can be harmful, and can also cause the vivarium to heat up. The proper temperature for most land living salamanders is from 65 to 72°F.

Whatever size aquarium you intend to use to house your salamander, be very sure it has a tight screen lid. An all glass lid should not be used because it prevents circulation of air, and allows the humidity to build up to nearly 100%. The soil mixture on the bottom of the vivarium should be slightly damp, not wet or soggy. For best results--a gradient of moisture from nearly dry to damp will furnish your salamanders with an environment in which they can choose their own "dampness".

2. Aquatic Species. Aquatic salamanders do well in an aquarium with a thin layer of gravel on the bottom, a few rocks, and a few plants. Once again, a 5- or 10-gallon aquarium would be the right size--but be sure that the top is tight--aquatic salamanders can also climb out. The water should be changed as often as necessary to keep it clear and odor free. Use spring water or aged tap water to insure that they are not exposed to any chlorine. The use of an aquarium filter will help keep the salamanders clean.

The water temperature should be kept at between 65 to 72°F. If you wish to illuminate the aquarium, use a fluorescent lamp, not an incandescent lamp. Never expose your salamanders to long periods of light, or very harsh light.

Food and Feeding.

The universal food item that can be fed to most of the salamanders discussed above is the earthworm. Worms are the natural food for many of them, they can be stored alive, they can be collected easily, or purchased at a bait shop. They supply most of the nutritional needs for salamanders, and they come in various sizes. For large salamanders the worms can be fed to them whole. Or for smaller species the worms can be chopped into small pieces and offered to the salamander on the end of a thin wire. Of course, insects of all sorts can be offered to salamanders. You can collect them yourself or purchase crickets or meal worms at a bait shop or pet shop. You may even try feeding small pieces of liver, beef, or even canned dog food, as well as small strips of raw fish. Salamanders, like other amphibians, will do well if fed three times per week. Dusting the food with calcium/phosphorus powder will help to keep your specimens healthy. Salamanders feed on live, moving animals, thus they usually eat best if stimulated by movement. The food can be held with long forceps or on a thin wire, and waved in front of the salamander. Food not eaten should be removed at once.

Salamanders are rather delicate animals, and they do best if they are handled as little as possible. With proper care and attention, salamanders can be very interesting and attractive animals in captivity.

T.R.J.

TOADS AND FROGS (order Anura)

Background.

The toads and frogs evolved from salamanders some 180 million years ago (Triassic period). They have changed little since they developed the large, jumping-type legs, and have become very successful. Today there are over 2,600 species of toads and frogs, and they live in a variety of environments.

With proper care, most toads and frogs do quite well in captivity. Knowing their natural history can help to furnish the keeper with the information necessary to keep these amphibians in good health.

Selection of Species to be Kept.

The selection of the proper anuran (toads and frogs) for you to keep depends partially on where your interests lie. If you are interested in toads, then the common species in your area may be selected (Missouri common toads include the American and the Fowler's toad). The very large Marine toad, Bufo marinus, is a species that is quite hardy in captivity, and are not expensive to purchase.

Spadefoot toads (genus Scaphiopus) are rather difficult to collect, except during their breeding season, and they are extremely shy and rather difficult to keep. They do not make a very good study animal because they tend to spend a great deal of time buried at the bottom of their vivarium.

The treefrogs generally do well in captivity, but only the larger species should be considered. The very small varieties should be delicate, and require very small insects to feed on. The gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) and green treefrog (Hyla cinerea), both are found in Missouri, as well as the barking treefrog and Cuban treefrog (Florida species), are easily kept, provided they are given a variety of live insects to eat.

The majority of true frogs (genus Rana) can be kept with little trouble, but--as with all animals--they should be kept as clean as possible. The leopard frog (Rana pipiens, blaira, and utricularia) will do well, so also will the green and bull frog (Rana clamitans and R. catesbeiana).

Because they are bred in captivity, the clawed frog, Xenopus, of Africa is available in many pet stores at reasonable prices. These completely aquatic frogs can do quite well in captivity. Another tropical frog species that is often sold in pet stores is the South American horned frog, Ceratophrys, which will eat both crickets and baby mice.

Choosing other species not listed in this section will have to be done at the discretion of the person keeping them. You may choose a species that is either too fragile (as with very small toads or treefrogs), or, if exotic species are what you are interested in, their price may be the deciding factor (some Central American frogs can be expensive).

No matter what type of toad or frog you intend to keep, remember that they require live food, and should never be kept in crowded conditions. Thus, keep in mind that insects are difficult to secure in the winter, and, the more specimens you have, the greater the problem will be to feed them. It is recommended that only one or two toads or frogs be kept at one time--get to know the animals, learn from them, and then move on to other species. Release native species in a suitable area--but never release non-native species into a new area ... give them to a zoo or biology teacher.