Theoretical Ethics

CHAPTER III.. Faculty of Moral Distinctions--the Existence of Conscience.

FACULTY OF MORAL DISTINCTIONS--THE EXISTENCE OF CONSCIENCE.

1. The Importance of this Question 37-39

2. Proofs of its Existence 39-55

1. The Moral Distinctions in Personal Consciousness and the World 39-40

2. The Peculiar Character of its Perceptions 40-44

3. Special Feelings from its Perceptions 44-47

4. Objection from Diversity of Moral Judgments Noticed 47-53

5. These Proofs Independent of the Mode of the Origin of the Power 53-55

CHAPTER IV.. The Faculty of Moral Distinctions--the Nature of Conscience.

THE FACULTY OF MORAL DISTINCTIONS--THE NATURE OF CONSCIENCE.

1. The Importance of Determining its Nature 56-59

1. For Scientific Accuracy 56-57

2. As Involving the Authority of Conscience 57-59

2. A Psychological Question 59

3. Conscience in place only in the Total Complex of Man's Psychical Powers 59-62

4. Specific Psychology of Conscience 62-76

1. Perception of the Ethical Distinction 62-64

2. Perception of Obligation 64-67

3. Identification of the Moral Quality in Acts 67-68

4. Perception of Merit and Demerit 68-72

5. Emotions Arising from these Perceptions 72-76

5. Special Characteristics Disclosed 76-80

1. Conscience Fundamentally Intellectual 76-77

2. Moral Quality its Sole Percept 77-78

3. Its Action Marked by Necessity 78-80

6. Relation of Phenomenalistic Philosophy to this View 80-83

7. Effect of Theistic Evolution Theory 83-85

CHAPTER V.. The Supremacy of Conscience.

THE SUPREMACY OF CONSCIENCE.

1. Involved in the Sphere of its Judgments 86-87

2. Shown by the Nature of its Action 87-88

3. The Absurdity of a Possible Supremacy in any other Faculty 88-92

4. Difficulties Considered 92-99

CHAPTER VI.. Moral Agency.

MORAL AGENCY.

1. Rational Intelligence 102-104

2. The Conscience 104-105

3. Free Will 105-115

4. Powers of Sensibility and Action 115-118

CHAPTER VII.

THE REALITY OF RIGHT AND WRONG.

1. The Source of Doubt the Relativity of Knowledge 120-125

2. Positive Statement of the Reality 125-129

1. The Moral Distinctions and Qualities not merely Subjective Phenomena but Objectively Real for Perception 125-126

2. Independent of the Mental Organization of the Race 127

3. Immutable and Eternal 127-129

3. The Importance of this Truth 129-130

4. Marks of the Dividing Line between True and False Moral Philosophies 130-132

5. The Relation of Evolutionism to this Reality 132-137

1. Theistic Evolution 132-133

2. Atheistic and Materialistic Evolution 133-137

CHAPTER VIII.. The Ground of Right.

THE GROUND OF RIGHT.

1. The Question Defined 138-139

2. Leading Views and Theories: The Egyptian Teaching--Chinese--Indian--Persian-- Greek--Roman--Divine Absolutism--Civil Authority--Utilitarianism--Evolutionary Utilitarianism--Failure of Utilitarianism-- Plausible Side of Utilitarian Theory-- Theory of Conformity to Relations--Spiritual Excellence Theory--Theory of an Imperative in its Own Right 140-167

CHAPTER IX.. The Ground of Right--Continued.

THE GROUND OF RIGHT--CONTINUED.

1. Statement of Proximate Ground 168-178

1. Sustained by the Moral Consciousness in Constant Experience 171-172

2. Implied in the Logical Pre-suppositions to Responsibility 172-175

3. Verified in the Character of the Various Virtues and their Opposite Immoralities 175-176

4. Supported by Analogy of Organic and Instinctive Action 176-177

5. Assumed in the Conceptions and Language of Common Life 178

2. The Ultimate Ground 178-181

CHAPTER X.. The Objects of the Moral Judgment.

THE OBJECTS OF THE MORAL JUDGMENT.

1. Personal Actions 182-187

2. The Various Feelings, Passions, and Desires 187-190

3. Intentions 190-191

4. The Activities and Uses of the Intellect 191-192

5. Acts of the Will 192-195

CHAPTER XI. The Ethical View Under Christian Teaching.

THE ETHICAL VIEW UNDER CHRISTIAN TEACHING.

1. Christianity Recognizes the Truths and Principles Established in True Ethical Science 196-197

2. It Contributes Immensely to the Ethical View 197-200

3. The Two Sources of the Christian View 200-205

1. Primarily, the Sacred Scriptures 201-204

2. Secondarily, the Christian Moral Consciousness 204-205

4. Particular Features of the Christian View 205-216

1. Known Duties Made More Distinct and Definite 205-206

2. Human Relations Better Disclosed 206-208

3. Moral Obligations Disclosed as Duties to God 208-210

4. Guilt of Offending against Moral Law 210-213

5. The Universalism of the Moral Law 213-215

6. Fulfilment Requires Regeneration 215-216

CHAPTER XII.. The Ethical Task Under Christianity.

THE ETHICAL TASK UNDER CHRISTIANITY.

1. Helped by the Completion of the Ethical View 219-220

2. Quickened by Assurance of Success 220-222

3. The Religious Interest Brought to Reinforce the Moral 222-224

4. The Enlightening and Enforcing Power of the Holy Spirit 224-225

5. Through Spiritual Regeneration 225-227

THEORETICAL ETHICS.

CHAPTER I.. Definition and Divisions.

DEFINITION AND DIVISIONS.

==Ethics Defined.==

=1.= Ethics is the science of rectitude and duty. It treats of the right and its obligations. Its subject is morality. Its sphere is the sphere of virtuous conduct. It covers a double range of inquiry, as the subject-matter lies within or without the human constitution. On the one side it investigates and sets forth the facts and laws of man's moral constitution; on the other, the nature and grounds of the distinction of right and wrong. In the light of the whole investigation into these fundamental verities, it determines the principles and rules of duty in the various relations of life. It thus discovers and elucidates the underlying pre-suppositions and principles upon which the phenomena of moral discernment and obligation rest, and on which man rises into the possibility and reality of character, as his supreme distinction among the orders of existence on earth. The inquiry throughout is conducted according to the scientific method of careful observation and analysis of the unquestionable facts concerned, and an orderly presentation of their necessary logical implications and conclusions. Hence the product of the investigation, as the systematized view of the facts, with their underlying principles, may justly be called, as it usually is called, moral science.

The term Ethics, which we thus use to designate this branch of study, with its systematized truth, is not employed with etymological strictness. For it comes from the Greek ἦθος [Greek: êthos], moral character, which, according to Aristotle is derived from ἔθος [Greek: ethos] custom, under the notion that moral virtue is a product of repeated acts of voluntary preference. Taken strictly this would build rectitude or the ethically right on the mere habits or usages of a people. But this conception of the basis of virtue must not be included and carried into the scientific use of the word, or be at all allowed to prejudice the final decision of this great question of the foundation of right, in the end, in the light of all the facts in the case.

The Latin equivalent for ἦθος [Greek: êthos] was mos, with similar suggestion as to the nature of rectitude, and human duty was treated under the head of De Moribus. Cicero says: "Quia pertinet ad mores, quod ἦθος [Greek: êthos] illi vocant, nos eam partem philosophiæ De Moribus appellare solemus; sed decet augentem linguam Latinam nominare Moralem." This suggestion of Cicero has given the common English designation Morals or Moral Philosophy. Recent usage, however, speaks of the study rather as moral science, in harmony with the prevailing preference for the term science in all investigations conducted under the inductive method. It is, nevertheless, as will appear, largely a metaphysical and philosophical investigation, and, if classed as science, must be counted as pre-eminently a philosophical science.

==Historical Glance.==

=2.= The beginning of the movement to give a systematic view of ethical truth may be traced to Socrates. The pre-Socratic philosophy failed to produce anything that can be called a system in this connection. The difficulty in the way was not only the want of a scientific spirit at that period, but especially the inadequate and false light in which human beings were viewed. Outside of the Hebrew people there was little or no recognition of the freedom of man, as man. Such freedom was denied both in thought and in life. Everywhere, in India, China, and Egypt, as well as in Greece and Rome, the immense mass of the population were in a condition of abject slavery, regarded as chattels, not amenable to the responsibilities of moral life. Only the free citizens were viewed as capable of virtue. Slavery was a part of the very conception of the State. The essential characteristics and rights of humanity were not thought of as belonging to all men. But moral life, as will appear, can exist only in the sphere of liberty. Even the most advanced philosophers of the ancient world extended the conception of moral manhood only to the free citizen, the status of the rest not bringing them within the possibility of even civic virtue. And even the so-called free citizen existed almost absolutely for the State. His sacred selfhood disappeared under ownership by the Government, by which he was held and used as a machine for military service. Even long after Socrates opened the way, within this limited range, toward some connected view of ethical life, these disabling causes continued to distort and impede all efforts to systematize the principles which underlie and determine it. Plato, Aristotle, and the philosophers generally, continued to know nothing of a morality for all human beings.

It is to be remembered, too, that this tardy appearance of effort in scientific ethics is part of the wider fact, that in that period of human history even the most advanced tribes and nations had not risen to science at all. All knowledge was in the non-scientific form, or only fragmentarily and inchoately adjusted. The moral consciousness and personal virtues, however, of course existed, as part of the normal constitution and practical activities of human life. The various peoples had collections of moral precepts and rules for right living, often bright with gems of ethical truth and beauty, usually in close connection with religious beliefs and convictions; but these were not based and unified on any underlying principles bringing them logically into compact and consistent system. Just as the facts and practices of religion existed, in even rich luxuriance, anterior to the appearance of speculative theologies, and the phenomena of nature for long centuries preceded the formation of the natural sciences, so the moral constitution of the race and practical morality existed long in advance of the explanations and systemization that create the science of ethics.

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