Christianity and Ethics: a Handbook of Christian Ethics

CHAPTER VII. Modern Theories of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

MODERN THEORIES OF LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

I. Naturalistic Tendency-- 1. Materialistic-- (1) Idyllic or Poetic--Rousseau. (2) Philosophic--Feuerbach. (3) Scientific--Haeckel. 2. Utilitarian--Hobbes, Bentham, Mill. 3. Evolutionary--Spencer. 4. Socialistic--Marx, Engels. 5. Individualistic-- (1) Aestheticism--Goethe, Schiller. (2) Subjectivism-- (a) Pessimism--Schopenhauer. (b) Optimism--Nietzsche. II. Idealistic Tendency-- 1. Kant--Categorical Imperative. 2. Fichte and Hegel--Idea of Personality. 3. James--Pragmatism. 4. Bergson--Vitalism. 5. Eucken--Activism.

CHAPTER VIII. The Christian Ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Life, as the highest Good. I. Life, in its Individual Aspect-- 1. Its Intensity. 2. Its Expansion. 3. 'Eternal Life.' II. Life, in its Social Aspect-- 1. 'The Kingdom of God'-- Eschatological Interpretation. Untenableness of Interimsethik. 2. Christ's View of Kingdom-- (1) A Present Reality--a Gift. (2) A Gradual Development--a Task. (3) A Future Consummation--a Hope. III. Life, in its Godward Aspect-- 1. Holiness. 2. Righteousness. 3. Love.

CHAPTER IX. Standard and Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

STANDARD AND MOTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

I. Christ as Example-- 1. Portrayal by Synoptists-- (1) Artlessness of Disciples. (2) Naturalness of Jesus, 2. Impression of Power-- (1) Power of Loyalty to Calling. (2) Power of Holiness. (3) Power of Sympathy. 3. Value of Jesus' Example for Present Life-- Misconception of Phrase 'Imitation of Christ.' II. The Christian Motive-- 1. Analysis of Springs of Conduct-- (1) Divine Forgiveness. (2) Fatherhood of God. (3) Sense of Vocation. (4) Brevity of Life. (5) Idea of Immortality. 2. Question as to Purity of Motive-- (1) Charge of Asceticism. (2) Charge of Hedonism. 3. Doctrine of Rewards-- (1) In Philosophy. (2) In Christianity--(a) Jesus; (b) Paul.

CHAPTER X. The Dynamic of the New Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

THE DYNAMIC OF THE NEW LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

I. Divine Power-- Operative through Christ's 1. Incarnation and Life. 2. Death and Sacrifice. 3. Resurrection and Indwelling Presence. II. Human Response-- 1. Repentance-- (1) Contrition--Confession--Resolution. (2) Question of 'Sudden Conversion.' (3) 'Twice Born' or 'Once Born.' 2. Faith-- (1) In Ordinary Life. (2) In Teaching of Jesus. (3) The Pauline Doctrine. 3. Obedience-- (1) Active Appropriation of Grace. (2) Determination of Whole Personality. (3) Gradual Assimilation.

Section D--Conduct

CHAPTER XI

VIRTUES AND VIRTUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Definition of Virtue. I. The Natural Basis of the Virtues-- 'The Cardinal Virtues.' II. The Christian Transformation of the Virtues-- 1. The New Testament Account. 2. Cardinal Virtues, Elements of Christian Character. 3. Place of Passive Virtues in Life. III. The Unification of the Virtues-- 1. Unity in Relation to God. 2. Love, Spring of all Virtues, 3. 'Theological Virtues,' Aspects of Love.

CHAPTER XII. The Realm of Duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

THE REALM OF DUTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

I. Aspects of Duty-- 1. Duty and Vocation. 2. Conflict of Duties-- (1) Competing Obligations. (2) 'Counsels of Perfection.' (3) Indifferent Acts. 3. Rights and Duties-- (1) Claim of 'Natural Rights.' (2) Based on Worth of Individual. (3) Christian Idea of Liberty. II. Spheres of Duty-- 1. Duties in Relation to Self-- (1) Self-Respect. (2) Self-Preservation. (3) Self-Development-- Self-regarding Duties not prominent in Scripture. Self-Realisation through Self-Sacrifice. 2. Duties in Relation to Others-- (1) Regard for Man: Brotherly Love-- (a) Justice. (b) Veracity. (c) Judgment. (2) Service-- (a) Sympathy. (b) Beneficence. (c) Forgiveness. (3) Example and Influence. 3. Duties in Relation to God-- (1) Recognition. (2) Obedience--Passive and Active. (3) Worship--Reverence, Prayer, Thanksgiving.

CHAPTER XIII. Social Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

I. The Family-- 1. Origin and Evolution of Family. 2. Christian view-- (1) Christ's Teaching on Marriage. (2) State Regulation and Eugenics. (3) Tendencies to Disparagement. 3. Family Relationships-- (1) Parents and Children. (2) Woman's Place and Rights. (3) Child Life and Education. II. The State-- 1. Basis of Authority-- Tolstoy and Anarchism. 'Social Contract.' 2. State, in New Testament. 3. Modern Conceptions-- Views of Augustine and Hegel. (1) Duty of State to Citizens. (2) Duty of Citizens to State. (3) The Democratic Movement-- Reciprocity of Service and Sense of Brotherhood. III. The Church-- 1. Relation of Church and State. 2. Purpose and Ideal of Church-- (1) Worship and Edification. (2) Witness to Christ. (3) Evangelisation of Mankind. 3. The Church and the Social Problem-- (1) Christ's Teaching as to Industry and Wealth. (2) Attitude of Early Church to Society. (3) Of Roman and Reformed Churches. 4. Duty of Christianity to the World-- The Missionary Imperative and Opportunity.

CHAPTER XIV. Conclusion--the Permanence of Christian Ethics . . . . . . . 245

CONCLUSION--THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS . . . . . . . 245

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

{1}

CHRISTIANITY AND ETHICS

INTRODUCTION

A PLEA FOR THE STUDY OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS

If, as Matthew Arnold says, conduct is three-fourths of life, then a careful inquiry into the laws of conduct is indispensable to the proper interpretation of the meaning and purpose of life. Conduct of itself, however, is merely the outward expression of character; and character again has its roots in personality; so that if we are to form a just conception of life we have to examine the forces which shape human personality and raise it to its highest power and efficiency. In estimating the value of man all the facts of consciousness and experience must be considered. Hence no adequate account of the end of life can be given without regard to that which, if it is true, must be the most stupendous fact of history--the fact of Christ.

If the Christian is a man to whom no incident of experience is secular and no duty insignificant, because all things belong to God and all life is dominated by the spirit of Christ, then Christian Ethics must be the application of Christianity to conduct; and its theme must be the systematic study of the ideals and forces which are alone adequate to shape character and fit man for the highest conceivable destiny--fellowship with, and likeness to, the Divine Being in whose image he has been made. This, of course, may be said to be the aim of all theology. The theologian must not be content to discuss merely speculative problems about God and man. He must seek above {2} all things to bring the truths of revelation to bear upon human practice. All knowledge has its practical implicate. The dogma which cannot be translated into duty is apt to be a vague abstraction.

In all ages there has been a tendency to separate truth and duty. But knowledge has two sides; it is at once a revelation and a challenge. There is no truth which has not its corresponding obligation, and no obligation which has not its corresponding truth. And not until every truth is rounded into its duty, and every duty is referred back into its truth shall we attain to that clearness of vision and consistency of moral life, to promote which is the primary task of Christian Ethics.

It is this practical element which gives to the study of morals its justification and makes it specially important for the Christian teacher. In this sense Ethics is really the crown of theology and ought to be the end of all previous study.

As a separate branch of study Christian Ethics dates only from the Reformation. It was natural, and perhaps inevitable that the first efforts of the Church should be occupied with the formation and elaboration of dogma. With a few notable exceptions, among whom may be mentioned Basil, Clement, Alquin and Thomas Aquinas, the Church fathers and schoolmen paid but scanty attention to the ethical side of religion. It was only after the Reformation that theology, Roman and Protestant alike, was divided into different branches. The Roman Catholic name for what we style Ethics is 'moral philosophy,' which, however, consists mainly of directions for father confessors in their dealing with perplexed souls. Christian Ethics appears for the first time as the name of a treatise by a French theologian of the Calvinistic persuasion--Danaeus, whose work, however, is confined to an exposition of the Decalogue. The first recorded work of the Lutheran church is the Theologia Moralis, written in 1634, by George Calixtus.

But the modern study of the subject really dates from {3} Schleiermacher (1768-1834), who divides theology into two sections, Dogmatics and Ethics, giving to the latter an independent treatment. Since his time Ethics has been regarded as a separate discipline, and within the last few decades increasing attention has been devoted to it.

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