CHAPTER LIII. Conclusion

CONCLUSION

WE have completed our task. Only a few words will be added to emphasise the leading features of our theory of the moral consciousness and to point out some general conclusions which may be drawn as regards its evolution.

Our study of the origin and development of the moral ideas was divided into three main sections. As moral ideas are expressed in moral judgments, we had to examine the general nature of both the predicates and the subjects of such judgments, as well as the moral valuation of the chief branches of conduct with which the moral consciousness of mankind concerns itself. And in each case our aim was not only to describe or analyse but also to explain the phenomena which came under our observation.

The theory was laid down that the moral concepts, which form the predicates of moral judgments, are ultimately based on moral emotions, that they are essentially generalisations of tendencies in certain phenomena to call forth either indignation or approval. It was therefore necessary for us to investigate the nature and origin of these emotions, and subsequently to consider their relations to the various moral concepts.

We found that the moral emotions belong to a wider class of emotions, which may be described as retributive; that moral disapproval is a kind of resentment, akin to {739} anger and revenge, and that moral approval is a kind of retributive kindly emotion, akin to gratitude. At the same time they differ from kindred non-moral emotions by their disinterestedness, apparent impartiality, and flavour of generality. As for the origin of the retributive emotions, we may assume that they have been acquired by means of natural selection in the struggle for existence; both resentment and retributive kindly emotion are states of mind which have a tendency to promote the interests of the individuals who feel them. This explanation also applies to the moral emotions in so far as they are retributive: it accounts for the hostile attitude of moral disapproval towards the cause of pain, and for the friendly attitude of moral approval towards the cause of pleasure. Our retributive emotions are always reactions against pain or pleasure felt by ourselves; this holds true of the moral emotions as well as of revenge and gratitude. But how shall we explain those elements in the moral emotions by which they are distinguished from other, non-moral retributive emotions? First, why should we, quite disinterestedly, feel pain evoking indignation because our neighbour is hurt, and pleasure calling forth approval because he is benefited?

We noticed that sympathy aided by the altruistic sentiment--sympathy in the common sense of the word--tends to produce disinterested retributive emotions. In all animal species which possess the altruistic sentiment in some form or other we may be sure to find sympathetic resentment as its accompaniment. And this sentiment may also give rise to disinterested retributive kindly emotion, even though it is more readily moved by the sight of pain than by the sight of pleasure and though sympathetic retributive kindliness has a powerful rival in the feeling of envy. Moreover, sympathetic retributive emotions may not only be reactions against sympathetic pain or pleasure, but may also be directly produced by the cognition of the signs of resentment or of the signs of retributive kindliness. Punishments and {740} rewards tend to reproduce the emotions from which they sprang, and language communicates retributive emotions by terms of condemnation and by terms of praise. Finally, there are cases of disinterested retributive emotions into which sympathy does not enter at all--sentimental antipathies and likings quite disinterested in character.

There are thus various ways in which disinterested retributive emotions may originate. But how shall we explain the fact that disinterestedness together with apparent impartiality and the flavour of generality have become characteristics by which the so-called moral emotions are distinguished from other retributive emotions? To this question the following answer was given:--Society is the birthplace of the moral consciousness. The first moral judgments expressed not the private emotions of isolated individuals but emotions which were felt by the community at large. Public indignation is the prototype of moral disapproval and public approval the prototype of moral approbation. And these public emotions are characterised by generality, individual disinterestedness, and apparent impartiality.

The moral emotions give rise to a variety of moral concepts, which are in different ways connected with the emotions from which they were derived. Thus moral disapproval is at the bottom of the concepts bad, vice, and wrong, ought and duty, right and rights, justice and injustice; whilst moral approval has led to the concepts good, virtue, and merit. It has, in particular, been of fundamental importance for the whole of our investigation to recognise the true contents of the notions of ought and duty. If these concepts were unanalysable, as they have often been represented to be, any attempt to explain the origin and development of the moral ideas would, in my opinion, be a hopeless failure.

From the predicates of moral judgments we proceeded to consider their subjects. Generally speaking, such judgments are passed on conduct or character, and {741} allowance is made for the various elements of which conduct and character are composed in proportion as the moral judgment is scrutinising and enlightened. It is only owing to ignorance or lack of due reflection if, as is often the case, moral estimates are influenced by external events which are entirely independent of the agent's will; if individuals who are incapable of recognising any act of theirs as right or wrong are treated as responsible beings; if motives are completely or partially disregarded; if little cognisance is taken of forbearances in comparison with acts; if want of foresight or want of self-restraint is overlooked when the effect produced by it is sufficiently remote. We were also able to explain why moral judgments are passed on conduct and character. This is due to the facts that moral judgments spring from moral emotions; that the moral emotions are retributive emotions; that a retributive emotion is a reactive attitude of mind, either kindly or hostile, towards a living being (or something looked upon in the light of a living being), regarded as a cause of pleasure or as a cause of pain; and that a living being is regarded as a true cause of pleasure or pain only in so far as this feeling is assumed to be caused by its will. It is a circumstance of the greatest importance that not only moral emotions but non-moral retributive emotions are felt with reference to phenomena exactly similar in their general nature to those on which moral judgments are passed. How could we account for this remarkable coincidence unless the moral judgments were based on emotions and the moral emotions were retributive emotions akin to gratitude and revenge?

Our theory as to the nature of the moral concepts and emotions is further supported by another and very comprehensive set of facts. In our discussion of the particular modes of conduct which are subject to moral valuation and of the judgments passed on them by different peoples and in different ages, this theory has constantly been called in to explain the data before us. It is noteworthy that the very acts, forbearances, and omissions {742} which are condemned as wrong are also apt to call forth anger and revenge, and that the acts and forbearances which are praised as morally good are apt to call forth gratitude. This coincidence, again, undoubtedly bears testimony both to the emotional basis of the moral concepts and to the retributive character of the moral emotions. Thus the conclusions arrived at in the first section of the work, while helping to explain the facts mentioned in the two other sections, are at the same time greatly strengthened by these facts. Any attempt to discover the nature and origin of the moral consciousness must necessarily take into account the moral ideas of mankind at large. And though painfully conscious of the incompleteness of the present treatise, I think I may confidently ask, with reference to its fundamental thesis, whether any other theory of the moral consciousness has ever been subjected to an equally comprehensive test.

The general uniformity of human nature accounts for the great similarities which characterise the moral ideas of mankind. But at the same time these ideas also present radical differences. A mode of conduct which among one people is condemned as wrong is among another people viewed with indifference or regarded as praiseworthy or enjoined as a duty. One reason for these variations lies in different external conditions. Hardships of life may lead to the killing of infants or abandoning of aged parents or eating of human bodies; and necessity and the force of habit may deprive these actions of the stigma which would otherwise be attached to them. Economic conditions have influenced moral ideas relating, for instance, to slavery, labour, and cleanliness; whilst the form of marriage and the opinions concerning it have been largely determined by such a factor as the numerical proportion between the sexes. But the most common differences of moral estimates have undoubtedly a psychical origin.

When we examine the moral rules of uncivilised races we find that they in a very large measure resemble those prevalent among nations of culture. In every savage {743} community homicide is prohibited by custom, and so is theft. Savages also regard charity as a duty and praise generosity as a virtue--indeed, their customs concerning mutual aid are often much more stringent than our own; and many uncivilised peoples are conspicuous for their aversion to telling lies. But at the same time there is a considerable difference between the regard for life, property, truth, and the general wellbeing of a neighbour, which displays itself in primitive rules of morality and that which is found among ourselves. Savages' prohibitions of murder, theft, and deceit, as also their injunctions of charity and kind behaviour, have, broadly speaking, reference only to members of the same community or tribe. They carefully distinguish between an act of homicide committed among their own people and one where the victim is a stranger; whilst the former is in ordinary circumstances disapproved of, the latter is in most cases allowed and often considered worthy of praise. And the same thing holds true of theft and lying and other injuries. Apart from the privileges which are granted to guests, and which are always of very short duration, a stranger is in early society devoid of all rights. This is the case not only among savages but among nations of archaic culture as well. When we from the lower races pass to peoples more advanced in civilisation we find that the social unit has grown larger, that the nation has taken the place of the tribe, and that the circle of persons within which the infliction of injuries is prohibited has extended accordingly. But the old distinction between offences against compatriots and harm done to foreigners remains. Nay, it survives to some extent even among ourselves, as appears from the prevailing attitude towards war and the readiness with which wars are waged. But although the difference between a fellow countryman and a foreigner has not ceased to affect the moral feelings of men even in the midst of modern civilisation, its influence has certainly been decreasing. The doctrine has been set forth, and has been gradually gaining ground, that our duties towards our {744} fellow men are universal duties, not restricted by the limits of country or race. Those who recognise the emotional origin of the rules of duty find no difficulty in explaining all these facts. The expansion of the commandments relating to neighbours coincides with the expansion of the altruistic sentiment. And the cause of this coincidence at once becomes clear when we consider that such commandments mainly spring from the emotion of sympathetic resentment, and that sympathetic resentment is rooted in the altruistic sentiment.

Besides the extension of duties towards neighbours so as to embrace wider and wider circles of men, there is another point in which the moral ideas of mankind have undergone an important change on the upward path from savagery and barbarism to civilisation. They have become more enlightened. Though moral ideas are based upon emotions, though all moral concepts are essentially generalisations of tendencies in certain phenomena to call forth moral approval or disapproval, the influence of intellectual considerations upon moral judgments is naturally very great. All higher emotions are determined by cognitions--sensations or ideas; they therefore vary according as the cognitions vary, and the nature of a cognition may very largely depend upon reflection or insight. If a person tells us an untruth we are apt to feel indignant; but if, on due reflection, we find that his motive was benevolent, for instance a desire to save the life of the person to whom the untruth was told, our indignation ceases, and may even be succeeded by approval. The change of cognitions, or ideas, has thus produced a change of emotions. Now, the evolution of the moral consciousness partly consists in its development from the unreflecting to the reflecting stage, from the unenlightened to the enlightened. This appears from the decreasing influence of external events upon moral judgments and from the growing discrimination with reference to motives, negligence, and other factors in conduct which are carefully considered by a scrupulous judge. More penetrating reflection has also reduced {745} the part played by disinterested likes and dislikes in the formation of moral ideas. When we clearly realise that a certain act is productive of no real harm but is condemned simply because it causes aversion or disgust, we can hardly look upon it as a proper object of moral censure--unless, indeed, its commission is considered to imply a blamable disregard for other persons' sensibilities. Deliberate resentment, whether moral or non-moral, is too much concerned with the will of the agent to be felt towards a person who obviously neither intends to offend anybody nor is guilty of culpable oversight. Nay, even when the agent knows that his behaviour is repulsive to others, he may be considered justified in acting as he does. Some degree of reflection easily leads to the notion that sentimental antipathies are no sufficient ground for interfering with other individuals' liberty of action either by punishing them or by subjecting them to moral censure, provided of course that they do not in an indelicate manner shock their neighbours' feelings. Hence many persons have recourse to utilitarian pretexts to support moral opinions or legal enactments which have originated in mere aversions; thus making futile attempts to reconcile old ideas with the requirements of a moral consciousness which is duly influenced by reflection.

In innumerable cases the variations of moral estimates are due to differences of beliefs. Almost every chapter of this work has borne witness to the enormous influence which the belief in supernatural forces or beings or in a future state has exercised upon the moral ideas of mankind, and has at the same time shown how exceedingly varied this influence has been. Religion, or superstition (as the case may be), has on the one hand stigmatised murder and suicide, on the other hand it has commended human sacrifice and certain cases of voluntary self-destruction. It has inculcated humanity and charity, but has also led to cruel persecutions of persons embracing another creed. It has emphasised the duty of truthspeaking, and has itself been a cause of pious fraud. It has promoted {746} both cleanly habits and filthiness. It has enjoined labour and abstinence from labour, sobriety and drunkenness, marriage and celibacy, chastity and temple prostitution. It has introduced a great variety of new duties and virtues, quite different from those which are recognised by the moral consciousness when left to itself, but nevertheless in many cases considered more important than any other duties or virtues. It seems that the moral ideas of uncivilised men are more affected by magic than by religion, and that the religious influence has reached its greatest extension at certain stages of culture which, though comparatively advanced, do not include the highest stage. Increasing knowledge lessens the sphere of the supernatural, and the ascription of a perfectly ethical character to the godhead does away with moral estimates which have sprung from less elevated religious conceptions.

I have here pointed out only the most general changes to which the moral ideas have been subject in the course of progressive civilisation; the details have been dealt with each in their separate place. There can be no doubt that changes also will take place in the future, and that similar causes will produce similar effects. We have every reason to believe that the altruistic sentiment will continue to expand, and that those moral commandments which are based on it will undergo a corresponding expansion; that the influence of reflection upon moral judgments will steadily increase; that the influence of sentimental antipathies and likings will diminish; and that in its relation to morality religion will be increasingly restricted to emphasising ordinary moral rules, and less preoccupied with inculcating special duties to the deity.

ADDITIONAL NOTES TO VOL. II

P. 287, n. 6.--The connection between the Hebrew Sabbath and the moon has been fully discussed by Professor Webster in his recent book, Rest Days, ch. viii.

P. 377, n. 1.--In his book, Totemism and Exogamy, Sir J. G. Frazer has definitely separated exogamy from totemism and thereby, it is to be hoped, saved us from further speculations about the totemic origin of the exogamous rules. Like myself, Frazer thinks (iv. 105 sqq.) that these rules have sprung from an aversion to the marriages of near kin. But whilst my own belief is that the aversion to such marriages through an association of ideas led to the prohibitions of marriage between members of the same clan on account of the notion of intimacy connected with a common descent and a common name, Frazer is of opinion that exogamy was deliberately instituted for the purpose of preventing the sexual unions of near kin. To me it seems almost inconceivable that the extensive, cumbersome, and sometimes very complicated institution of exogamy should have been invented simply as a precaution against unions between the nearest relatives.

Granting the prevalence of an aversion to the marriages of near kin, Frazer is confronted with the question how it has originated. His answer is, "We do not know and it is difficult even to guess." Yet he makes a cautious attempt to solve the riddle. He observes (iv. 156 sqq.) that the great severity with which incest is generally punished by savages seems to show that they believe it to be a crime which endangers the whole community. It may have been thought to render the women of the tribe sterile and to prevent animals and plants from multiplying; such beliefs, Frazer remarks, appear in point of fact to have been held by many races in different parts of the world. But he admits himself that all the peoples who are known to hold them seem to be agricultural, and that incest is in particular supposed to have a sterilising effect on the crops. It is indeed a poor argument to conjecture that a careful search among the most primitive exogamous peoples now surviving, especially among the Australian aborigines, might still reveal the existence of a belief in the sterilising or injurious effects of incest "upon women generally and particularly upon edible animals and plants." It may also be asked if it really is reasonable to presume that an aversion which had originated in the superstition mentioned could have remained unimpaired among all the civilised nations of the world. Moreover, if this superstition were the root of the aversion to incest, we should still have to explain the origin of the superstition itself, and this Frazer has not even attempted to do. If, on the other hand, the abhorrence of incest has originated in the way I have suggested, the superstition which he is inclined to regard as the cause of that feeling is a very natural result of it or of the prohibition to which it gave rise. That this is the case is all the more probable because the same injurious effects as are attributed to incest are supposed to result from other sexual irregularities as well, such as adultery and fornication (cf. supra, ii. 417).

Sir J. G. Frazer also subjects my theory to a detailed criticism (iv. 96 sqq.). He admits that there seems to be some ground for believing in the existence of "a natural aversion to, or at least a want of inclination for, sexual intercourse between persons who have been brought up closely together {748} from early youth"; but he finds it difficult to understand how this could have been changed into an aversion to sexual intercourse with persons near of kin, and maintains that, till I explain this satisfactorily, the chain of reasoning by which I support my theory breaks down entirely at the crucial point. For my own part I think that the transition which Frazer finds so difficult to understand is not only possible and natural, but well-nigh proved by an exactly analogous case of equally world-wide occurrence and of still greater social importance, namely, the process which has led to the association of all kinds of social rights and duties with kinship. As I have pointed out above (ch. xxxiv.), the maternal and paternal sentiments, which largely are at the bottom of parental duties and rights, cannot in their simplest forms be based on a knowledge of blood relationship, but respond to stimuli derived from other circumstances, notably the proximity of the helpless young, that is, the external relationship in which the offspring from the beginning stand to the parents. Nor is the so-called filial love in the first instance rooted in considerations of kinship; it is essentially retributive, the agreeable feeling produced by benefits received making the individual look with pleasure and kindliness upon the giver. Here again the affection is ultimately due to close living together, and is further strengthened by it, as appears from the cooling effect of long separation of children from their parents. So also fraternal love and the duties and rights which have sprung from it depend in the first place on other circumstances than the idea of a common blood; and the same may be said of the tie which binds together relatives more remotely allied. Its social force is ultimately derived from near relatives' habit of living together. "Men became gregarious by remaining in the circle where they were born; if, instead of keeping together with their kindred, they had preferred to isolate themselves or to unite with strangers, there would certainly be no blood-bond at all. The mutual attachment and the social rights and duties which resulted from this gregarious condition were associated with the relation in which members of the group stood to one another--the relation of kinship as expressed by a common name--and these associations might last even after the local tie was broken," being kept up by the common name (supra, ii. 203).

Here we have an immense group of facts which, though ultimately depending upon close living together, have been interpreted in terms of kinship. Why, then, could not the same have been the case with the aversion to incest and the prohibitory rules resulting from it? They really present a most striking analogy to the instances just mentioned. They have been associated with kinship because near relatives normally live together. They have come to include relatives more remotely allied who do not live together, owing to an association of ideas, especially through the influence of a common name; clan exogamy has its counterpart, for instance, in the blood feud as a duty incumbent on the whole clan. But there are also cases in which marriages between unrelated persons who have been brought up together in the same family, or who belong to the same local group, are held blamable or are actually prohibited; and so there are, even in early society, social rights and duties which are associated not with a common descent but with close living together. Frazer asks: "If the root of the whole matter is a horror of marriage between persons who have always lived with each other, how comes it that at the present day that horror has been weakened into a mere general preference for marriage with persons whose attractions have not been blunted by long familiarity? . . . Why should the marriage of a brother with a sister, or of a mother with a son, excite the deepest detestation, . . . while the origin of it all, the marriage between housemates, should excite at most a mild surprise too slight probably to suggest even a subject for a farce, and should be as legitimate in the eye of the law among all civilised nations as any other marriage?" For my own part, I believe that marriage between a man and his foster-daughter or between a foster-brother {749} and a foster-sister, in case the social relations between them have been exactly similar to those of blood-relatives of corresponding degrees, would cause more than a mild surprise, and appear unnatural and objectionable. As I have said above (ii. 375), I do not deny that unions between the nearest blood-relatives inspire a horror of their own, but it seems quite natural that they should do so considering that from earliest times the aversion to sexual intercourse between persons living closely together has been expressed in prohibitions against unions between kindred. Nor can it be a matter of surprise that the prohibitory rules so commonly refer to marriages of kindred alone. Law only takes into account general and well-defined cases, and hence relationships of some kind or other between persons who are nearly always kindred are defined in terms of blood-relationship. This is true not only of the prohibitions of incest, but of many duties and rights inside the family circle.

Sir J. G. Frazer raises another objection to my theory. He argues that, if exogamy resulted from a natural instinct, there would be no need to reinforce that instinct by legal pains and penalties; the law only forbids men to do what their instincts incline them to do, and hence we may always safely assume that crimes forbidden by law are crimes which many men have a natural propensity to commit. I must confess that this argument greatly surprises me. Of course, where there is no transgression there is no law. But Frazer cannot be ignorant of the variability of instincts and of the great variability of the sexual instinct; nor should he forget that there are circumstances in which a natural sentiment may be blunted and overcome. Would he maintain that there can be no deep natural aversion to bestiality because bestiality is forbidden by law, and that the exceptional severity with which parricide is treated by many law books proves that a large number of men have a natural propensity to kill their parents? The law expresses the feelings of the majority and punishes acts that shock them.

Sir J. G. Frazer accuses me of having extended Darwin's methods to subjects which only partially admit of such treatment, because my theory of the origin of exogamy attempts to explain the growth of a human institution "too exclusively from physical and biological causes without taking into account the factors of intelligence, deliberation, and will." This, he adds, is "not science, but a bastard imitation of it." What have I done to incur so severe an accusation? I have suggested that the instinctive aversion to sexual intercourse between persons who have been living very closely together from early youth may be the result of natural selection. I am inclined to think--and so is Frazer--that consanguineous marriages are in some way or other detrimental to the species. This fact would lead to the development of a sentiment which would be powerful enough, as a rule, to prevent injurious unions--a sentiment which would not, of course, show itself as an innate aversion to sexual connections with near relatives as such, but as an aversion on the part of individuals to union with others with whom they lived closely together from early childhood. These, as a matter of fact, would be blood-relations, and the result would consequently be the survival of the fittest. All that I have done, then, is to appeal to natural selection to explain the origin of a primeval instinctive sentiment; and I can never believe that this is to transgress the legitimate boundaries of Darwinism.

Sir J. G. Frazer himself thinks that "we may safely conclude that infertility is an inevitable consequence of inbreeding continued through many generations in the same place and under the same conditions," and in support of this view he quotes the valuable opinions of Mr. Walter Heape and Mr. F. H. A. Marshall. He thus finds that the principles of exogamy present "a curious resemblance" to the principles of scientific breeding, but he rightly assumes that this analogy cannot be due to any exact knowledge or farseeing care on the part of its savage founders. How then shall we explain this analogy? Frazer's answer is that "it must be an accidental {750} result of a superstition, an unconscious mimicry of science." In prohibiting incest the poor savages "blindly obeyed the impulse of the great evolutionary forces which in the physical world are constantly educing higher out of lower forms of existence and in the moral world civilisation out of savagery. If that is so, exogamy has been an instrument in the hands of that unknown power, the masked wizard of history, who by some mysterious process, some subtle alchemy, so often transmutes in the crucible of suffering the dross of folly and evil into the fine gold of wisdom and good." I hope it will not be considered uncalled-for impertinence on my part to ask if this reasoning is a specimen of what Frazer regards as science proper in contradistinction to my own "bastard imitation of it"?

In any attempt to explain the origin of exogamy there are, in my opinion, three parallel groups of facts of general occurrence which necessarily must be taken into consideration:--Firstly, the prohibitions of incest and rules of exogamy themselves; secondly, the aversion to sexual intercourse between persons living together from early youth; thirdly, the injurious consequences of inbreeding. As for the facts of the first group, Frazer and I agree that they all have the same root, exogamy being in some way or other derived from an aversion to the marriages of near kin. As for the facts of the second group, Frazer at all events admits that "there seems to be some ground" for believing in them. As for the facts of the third group, there is complete agreement between us. I ask: Is it reasonable to think that there is no causal connection between these three groups of facts? Is it right to ignore the second group altogether, as does Frazer, and to look upon the coincidence of the first and the third as accidental? I gratefully acknowledge that Frazer's chapter on the Origin of Exogamy has only strengthened my belief in my own theory.

Other objections to my theory have recently been made by Messrs. Hose and McDougall in their work on The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, vol. ii., p. 197, note. They observe that intercourse between a youth and his sister-by-adoption is not regarded as incest in these tribes, and that they know at least one instance of marriage between two young Kenyahs brought up together as adopted brother and sister. "This occurrence of incest between couples brought up in the same household," they say, "is, of course, difficult to reconcile with Professor Westermarck's well-known theory of the ground of the almost universal feeling against incest, namely, that it depends upon sexual aversion or indifference engendered by close proximity during childhood." They moreover maintain that "the occurrence of incest between brothers and sisters, and the strong feeling of the Sea Dyaks against incest between nephew and aunt (who often are members of distinct communities)," are facts which are fatal to this theory.

In my attempt to explain the rules against incest I certainly did not overlook the fact that these rules very frequently have reference to persons who are, or may be, members of different communities, and I found no difficulty in accounting for it (see supra, ii. 369; History of Human Marriage, p. 330 sq.). Curiously enough Messrs. Hose and McDougall's own attempt to solve the problem is, if I understand them rightly, based on the supposition that the prohibitions of intermarriage originally referred to persons who belonged to the same community. They write:--"If we accept some such view of the constitution of primitive society as has been suggested by Messrs. Atkinson and Lang (Primal Law), namely, that the social group consisted of a single patriarch and a group of wives and daughters, over all of whom he exercised unrestricted power or rights; we shall see that the first step towards the constitution of a higher form of society must have been the strict limitation of his rights over certain of the women, in order that younger males might be incorporated in the society and enjoy the undisputed possession of them. The patriarch, having accepted this limitation of his rights over his daughters for the sake of the greater security and strength of the band given by the inclusion of a {751} certain number of young males, would enforce all the more strictly upon them his prohibition against any tampering with the females of the senior generation. Thus very strict prohibitions and severe penalties against the consorting of the patriarch with the younger generation of females, i.e. his daughters, and against intercourse between the young males admitted to membership of the group and the wives of the patriarch, would be the essential conditions of advance of social organisation. The enforcement of these penalties would engender a traditional sentiment against such unions, and these would be the unions primitively regarded as incestuous. The persistency of the tendency of the patriarch's jealousy to drive his sons out of the family group as they attained puberty would render the extension of this sentiment to brother-and-sister unions easy and almost inevitable. For the young male admitted to the group would be one who came with a price in his hand to offer in return for the bride he sought. Such a price could only be exacted by the patriarch on the condition that he maintained an absolute prohibition on sexual relations between his offspring so long as the young sons remained under his roof." I should like to know how Messrs. Hose and McDougall, on the basis of this theory, would explain "the strong feeling of the Sea Dyaks against incest between nephew and aunt (who often are members of distinct communities)," and, generally speaking, the rules prohibiting the intermarriage of persons belonging to different local groups. For the rest, I must confess that the assumptions on which their whole theory rests seem to me extremely arbitrary. Brothers are prohibited from marrying their sisters because the old patriarch drove away his grown-up sons out of jealousy; but his jealousy was not strong enough to prevent other young males from joining the band. On the contrary, he allowed them to be incorporated in it, because they added to its strength; nay, he gave them his own daughters in marriage, and refrained henceforth himself from intercourse with these young women so rigorously that ever since a father has been prohibited from marrying his daughter. But the young men had to pay a price for their wives. It may be asked: Why did not the old patriarch accept a price from his own sons or let them work for him, instead of mercilessly turning them out of their old home, although they would have been just as good protectors of it as anybody else? And why did he give the young men his daughters? He might have kept the young women for himself and let the young men have the old ones. This is what is done by the old men in Australia, where the young girls are, as a rule, allotted to old men, and the boys, whenever they are allowed to marry, get old lubras as wives (Malinowski, The Family among the Australian Aborigines, p. 259 sqq.). Yet, in spite of this custom, there is no country where incest has been more strictly prohibited than in Australia.

Messrs. Hose and McDougall maintain that the occurrence of incest between brothers and sisters and the feeling of the Sea Dyaks against incest between nephew and aunt are facts which seem "to point strongly to the view that the sentiment has a purely conventional or customary source." I ask: Is it reasonable to suppose that, if this were the case, the feeling against sexual intercourse between the nearest relatives could have so long survived the conditions from which it sprang without showing any signs of decay? As I have pointed out above, the prohibited degrees are very differently defined in the customs or laws of different peoples, generally being more numerous among peoples unaffected by modern civilisation than they are in more advanced communities; and it appears that the extent to which relatives are prohibited from intermarrying is closely connected with the intimacy of their social relations. Whilst among ourselves cousins are allowed to intermarry, there is still a strong sentiment against intercourse between parents and children and between brothers and sisters, who in normal cases belong to the same family circle. Why should the feeling against incest have survived in this case but not in others, if it had a purely conventional origin? And how could any law {752} based on convention alone account for the normal absence of erotic feelings in the relation between parents and children and brothers and sisters? It is true that cases of intercourse between the nearest relatives do occur, but they are certainly quite exceptional. Messrs. Hose and McDougall say themselves (p. 198) that "incest of any form is very infrequent" among the tribes of Borneo, and they seem to know of only one instance of marriage between young Kenyahs brought up together as adopted brother and sister, although such marriages are allowed. To maintain that cases of this kind are fatal to my theory seems to me as illogical as it would be to assume that the occurrence of a horror feminæ in many men disproves the general prevalence of a feeling of love between the sexes.

P. 396, n. 1.--In his recent work, The Family among the Australian Aborigines, Dr. Malinowski has come to the same conclusion. He observes that the individual family plays a foremost part in the social life of those aborigines; it has a very firm basis in their customs and ideas, and "by no means bears the features of anything like recent innovation, or a subordinate form subservient to the idea of group marriage." The Australian husband had generally a definite sexual "over-right" over his wife, which secured to him the privilege of disposing of her, or at least of exercising a certain control over her conduct in sexual matters, even though this "over-right" did not, as a rule, amount to an exclusive right. There were customs like wife-lending, exchange of wives, ceremonial defloration of girls by old men, the different forms of licence practised at large tribal gatherings, and especially the Pirrauru relationship found in several of the southern central tribes. But all this does not constitute group marriage, the complete content of which does not consist in sexual relations alone. Dr. Malinowski emphasises the fact that marriage cannot be detached from family life; "it is defined in all its aspects by the problems of the economic unity of the family, of the bonds created by common life in one wurley, through the common rearing of, and affection towards, the offspring." In nearly all these respects even the Pirrauru relationship essentially differs from marriage, and cannot, therefore, seriously encroach upon the individual family. Nor can we regard this relationship as a survival of previous group marriage. Dr. Malinowski also points out (p. 89 sq.) how highly objectionable it is that "our best informants (especially Howitt and Spencer and Gillen) describe the facts of sexual life of to-day in terms of their hypothetical assumptions."

P. 419, n. 5.--For Moorish beliefs relating to contact between sexual uncleanness and holiness see my essays, The Moorish Conception of Holiness (Baraka), p. 123 sqq., and Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco, pp. 17, 22, 23, 28, 46, 47, 54.

P. 463, n. 8.--During the years that have passed since the first edition of this book was issued, the study of homosexuality has been carried on with remarkable activity. The following books are exclusively devoted to this subject:--Das gleichgeschlechtliche Leben der Naturvölker, by F. Karsch-Haack (1911), Intermediate Types among Primitive Folk, by Edward Carpenter (1914), and Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes, by Magnus Hirschfeld (1914). Carpenter's book chiefly deals with the invert in early religion and in warfare. Hirschfeld's work is a veritable encyclopædia of homosexuality--according to Dr. Havelock Ellis, "not only the largest but the most precise, detailed, and comprehensive--even the most condensed--work which has yet appeared on the subject." In 1915 Dr. Havelock Ellis issued a third, revised and enlarged, edition of his Sexual Inversion.

P. 485, n. 1.--This passage and, generally, the suggestion that there is a certain relationship between the social reaction against homosexuality {753} and against infanticide, have been excluded from the last edition of Dr. Havelock Ellis's book.

P. 584, n. 1.--There is hardly any subject which during the last four or five years has been more eagerly discussed by students of social anthropology than the relation between religion and magic. It has been dealt with, e.g., by Sir J. G. Frazer in The Magic Art, by Professor Durkheim in Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse, by Dr. Marett in The Threshold of Religion and other writings, by Dr. Irving King in The Development of Religion, by Professor Leuba in A Psychological Study of Religion, by Mr. Sidney Hartland in Ritual and Belief, and by the present Archbishop of Sweden, Nathan Söderblom, in his book Gudstrons uppkomst. According to the French school of sociologists, religion is social in its aims and magic antisocial; and this distinction has lately been accepted by Dr. Marett, who writes (Anthropology, p. 209 sq.): "Magic I take to include all bad ways, and religion all good ways, of dealing with the supernormal--bad and good, of course, not as we may happen to judge them, but as the society concerned judges them." But this use of the terms is neither in agreement with traditional usage nor, in my opinion, suitable for the purpose of scientific classification. Besides black magic, or witchcraft, there is also white magic; even a medieval theologian like Albertus Magnus asserts that "magical science is not evil, since through knowledge of it evil can be avoided and good attained." The French distinction between magic and religion implies that a prayer to a god for the destruction of an enemy must be classified as religion if it is offered in a cause which is considered just by the community, but as magic if it is disapproved of. If a man makes a girl drink a love-potion in order to gain her favour, it is religion if their union is desirable from the society's point of view, but if he gives the same drink to another man's wife it is magic. The best part of what has been hitherto called imitative or homopathic magic no longer remains magic at all; if water is poured out for the purpose of producing rain it is homopathic magic only in case rain is not wanted by the community, but if it is done during a drought it is religion. Thus the very same practices are qualified as religious or magical according as they have social or antisocial ends; and, as Mr. Hartland rightly asks (Ritual and Belief, p. 76): "How shall we define these ends?"

It should be added, however, that the definition of religion which I have given in the text has reference only to religion in the abstract, not to the various religions. In the popular sense of the word, a religion may include many practices which are what I have called magical. As I have said above (p. 649), "both Christianity in its earlier phases and Muhammedanism are full of magical practices expressly sanctioned by their theology." Although the magical and the strictly religious attitude differ from each other, they are not irreconcilable, and may therefore very well form parts of one and the same religion; there is no such thing as a magic being opposed to a religion. By a religion is generally understood a system of beliefs and rules of behaviour which have reference to men's relations to one or several supernatural beings whom they call their god or gods, that is, supernatural beings who are the objects of a regular cult and between whom and their worshippers there are established and permanent relationships. If it be admitted that the word religion may be thus legitimately used in two different senses, I think there is little ground left for further controversy on the subject. After all, sociologists may more profitably occupy their time than by continuous quarrelling about the meaning of terms.

P. 608, n. 4.--In The Dying God, p. 204, n. 1, Sir J. G. Frazer writes: "There is a good deal to be said in favour of Dr. Westermarck's theory, which is supported in particular by the sanctity attributed to the regalia. But on the whole I see no sufficient reason to abandon the view adopted {754} in the text, and I am confirmed in it by the Shilluk evidence, which was unknown to Dr. Westermarck when he propounded his theory."

According to Professor C. G. Seligman to whom Frazer is indebted for detailed information on the subject (op. cit. p. 17 sqq.) it is a fundamental article of the Shilluk creed that the spirit of Nyakang, the divine or semi-divine hero who settled the Shilluk in their present territory and founded the dynasty of their kings, is incarnate in the reigning king, who is accordingly himself invested to some extent with the character of a divinity. But while the Shilluk hold their kings in high, indeed religious, reverence and take every precaution against their accidental death, nevertheless they cherish the conviction that the king must not be allowed to become ill or senile, lest with his diminishing vigour the cattle should sicken and fail to bear their increase, the crops should rot in the fields, and man, stricken with disease, should die in ever-increasing numbers. To prevent these calamities it used to be the regular custom with the Shilluk to put the king to death whenever he showed signs of ill-health or failing strength. Nay, from Dr. Seligman's enquiries it appears that even while the king was yet in the prime of health and strength he might at any time be attacked by a rival and have to defend his crown in a combat to the death. According to the common Shilluk tradition any son of a king had the right thus to fight the king in possession and, if he succeeded in killing him, to reign in his stead. Now "an important part of the solemnities attending the accession of a Shilluk king appears to be intended to convey to the new monarch the divine spirit of Nyakang, which has been transmitted from the founder of the dynasty to all his successors on the throne. For this purpose a sacred four-legged stool and a mysterious object which bears the name of Nyakang himself are brought with much solemnity from the shrine of Nyakang at Akurwa to the small village of Kwom near Fashoda, where the king elect and the chiefs await their arrival. The thing called Nyakang is said to be of cylindrical shape, some two or three feet long by six inches broad. The chief of Akurwa informed Dr. Seligman that the object in question is a rude wooden figure of a man, which was fashioned long ago at the command of Nyakang in person. We may suppose that it represents the divine king himself and that it is, or was formerly, supposed to house his spirit, though the chief of Akurwa denied to Dr. Seligman that it does so now. . . . The image of Nyakang is placed on the stool; the king elect holds one leg of the stool and an important chief holds another. . . . A bullock is killed and its flesh eaten by the men of certain families called ororo, who are said to be descended from the third of the Shilluk kings. Then the Akurwa men carry the image of Nyakang into the shrine, and the ororo men place the king elect on the sacred stool, where he remains seated for some time, apparently till sunset. When he rises, the Akurwa men carry the stool back into the shrine, and the king is escorted to three new huts, where he stays in seclusion for three days. On the fourth night he is conducted quietly, almost stealthily, to his royal residence at Fashoda, and next day he shows himself publicly to his subjects."

As regards this so-called evidence it should, first, be noticed that it is only Dr. Seligman's own conjecture that the mysterious object called Nyakang is or has been supposed to contain the spirit of the holy founder of the dynasty, and that this conjecture is expressly said to be opposed to the present beliefs of the natives. On the other hand it is obvious that the object in question is regarded as a holy object, and that its holiness, or a particle of it, is supposed to be transmitted to the new king through material contact--an idea which well agrees with my own theory. But even if the Shilluk had once believed that their king was a reincarnation of the spirit of Nyakang, that belief could hardly be regarded as a direct proof of the idea that the soul of the slain man-god is transmitted to his royal successor. The Shilluk believe that Nyakang, unlike his royal descendants of more recent times, did not die but simply disappeared.

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SUBJECT INDEX

ABLUTIONS, i. 53-56, ii. 294, 295, 352-354, 358-359, 415, 416, 726

Abortion, i. 378, 408, 409, 413-417, ii. 705

Accessio, ii. 50

Accident, injuries due to, i. 217-240, 315, 316, 319, ii. 714; benefits due to, i. 318 sq.; the future state of persons who have died by, ii. 238, 239, 241

Acts, i. 203-206

Adopted children, rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 46; maternal affection for, ii. 187-189

Adoption, of prisoners of war, i. 336; of unintentional manslayers, i. 484; the blood-covenant represented as a rite of, ii. 206 sq.; marriage between relations by, ii. 369, 374, 375, 748-750, 752

Adultery, ii. 447-455; punishment of, i. 189, 311, 492, 521, 630, ii. 447-45. 452, 453, 558; self-redress in case of, i. 290-293, 491 sq., ii. 447; as a ground for divorce or judicial separation, ii. 397, 455; supposed to injure the harvest, ii. 417, 747; stigmatised by religion, ii. 447, 448, 450, 453-455, 675, 676, 684, 686, 700, 717; refuge denied to persons guilty of, ii. 632 sq.

Aesthetic emotions, i. 326

---- judgments, i. 8

Affection. See Altruistic sentiment; Conjugal, Filial, Fraternal, Marital, Maternal, Paternal, Social affection

Age, restrictions in diet depending on, ii. 319 sq. See Children, Old age, Old persons, Seniority

Agricultural tribes, the position of women among, i. 660 sq.; slavery among, i. 673, 674, 681; social aggregates of, ii. 201; sympathy for domestic animals among, ii. 506, see Oxen

Agriculture, originally a feminine pursuit, i. 634, 635 n. ^4, 637; moral valuation of, ii. 273-277, 280, 402

Albinos, religious veneration of, ii. 590

All Souls, ii. 550

All-father. See Supreme beings

Alliance, prohibition of marriage between relations by, ii. 369, 377

Alms, connection between sacrifices offered to gods and, i. 565-569; between fasting and the giving of, ii. 316-318; between offerings to the dead and, ii. 550-552; to be given with an ungrudging eye, and not before witnesses, i. 594. See Charity

Altruistic sentiment, the, its origin and development, ch. xxxiv. (ii. 186-228); i. 94, 95, 110-114, 129, 373, 468, 559, ii. 494-506, 510-514. See Conjugal, Filial, Fraternal, Marital, Maternal, Paternal, Social affection

Ancestors. See Dead

Anger, the nature and origin of, i. 21-23, 30, 38-42; in animals, i. 22, ii. 51; in children, i. 22 sq.; towards inanimate things, i. 26, 27, 260-263, 315; appeased by repentance, i. 87; sympathetic resentment produced by the cognition of the signs of, i. 114 sq.; injuries inflicted in, i. 290-298, 311, 316 sq.; a cause of suicide, ii. 233

Animals, regard for the lower, ch. xliv. (ii. 490-514), i. 11 sq.; anger in, i. 22, ii. 51; revenge taken upon, i. 26, 27, 251-253, 255, 256, 258; revenge taken by, i. 37 sq.; self-regarding pride in, i. 39, ii. 137 sq.; retributive kindly emotion in, i. 94; sympathetic resentment in, i. 112, ii. 52; killing of sacred, i. 227, ii. 603-606, 609; of totemic, ii. 210, 603, 604, 606; {838} of various kinds of, see Killing; eating of totemic, i. 227, ii. 210, 211, 323, 324, 606; credited with a conscience, i. 249-251; not responsible for their acts, i. 249-251; treated as responsible agents, i. 251-260, 264, 308; believed to take vengeance upon men, i. 252, 258, ii. 491, 497, 500, 502, 504, 603; subject to regular punishment, ii. 253-260, 264, 308; sexual intercourse between men and, i. 253 sq., ii. 409, 749; believed to be rewarded or punished after death, i. 258 sq.; regarded as on a footing of equality with man, i. 258-260, ii. 494, 510; non-moral resentment in the case of injuries inflicted by, i. 316; sacrificed instead of human victims, i. 469 sq.; sacrificed for the purpose of saving the lives of men or of other animals, i. 469 sq., ii. 616 sq.; their desire to appropriate and to keep that which has been appropriated, ii. 51; maternal affection among, ii. 186-190, 193; paternal affection among, ii. 189, 190, 193; conjugal attachment among, ii. 191 sq.; abstinence from eating various kinds of, ii. 319-335; from eating any kind of, ii. 335-338, 499; belief in the transmigration of human souls into, ii. 324, 328, 338, 490, 496, 500, 504, 516, 517, 693, 709 sq.; homosexual intercourse among, ii. 456, 466, 475 n. ^2; their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 582 sq.; worship of, ii. 590, 598; sheltered by sacred places, ii. 627-629, 631, 635

Animism, ii. 595-597

Annihilation of the soul, belief in the, ii. 236, 515, 516, 559, 565, 580, 679

Anthropomorphism, ii. 595, 597-600

Antipathies, disinterested, i. 116, 117, 533, 713 sq., ii. 113, 166, 185, 227, 262, 266-268, 291, 334, 335, 351, 368, 372-375, 381, 382, 403, 404, 434, 439, 440, 483, 484, 744-746

Antivivisectionists, ii. 512, 514

Apes, the man-like, paternal care among, ii. 189 sq.; the duration of their conjugal unions, ii. 192; not gregarious, ii. 195; chiefly monogamous, ii. 391. See Monkeys

Arbitration, i. 368 sq.

Arms, stealing of, i. 287, ii. 14; regarded with superstitious veneration, i. 506; oaths taken upon, i. 506, ii. 119-121

Arson, i. 187, 188, 293, 676, ii. 633

Asceticism, ii. 281, 315-318, 355-363, 421

Astronomical changes, abstinence from work connected with, ii. 284-288, 747; fasting connected with, ii. 309-315

Asylums, ii. 628-638; i. 221, 224, 295-297, 307, 308, 380, 427, 579, 580, 585, 668, 669, 690, 692, 696

Atheism, ii. 643 sq.

Atonement. See Expiation, Expiatory sacrifice

---- the day (fast) of, i. 65, ii. 311, 312, 316, 357-359. 617

Attempts to commit crimes, i. 200, 241-247, 374

"BAD," analysis of the concept, i. 134

Badger-baiting, ii. 509

Bananas, abstinence from, ii. 321

Banishment, as a punishment, i. 46, 58, 172, 173, 224, 225, 227, 228, 267, 287, 312, 424, 601, ii. 4, 6, 7, 10, 12, 74, 123 n. ^1, 331, 424, 425, 452, 475 n. ^10, 478, 525

Baptism, i. 55, 411, 416, 417, 666, ii. 295, 417, 721-723

Barrenness of a wife, human sacrifices offered in cases of, i. 457 sq.; a cause of polygyny, ii. 388

Bear-baiting, ii. 508-510

Beating, as a religious rite, ii. 294, 357-359

Beef, abstinence from, ii. 327, 330

Bees, prohibition of killing, ii. 490

Beliefs, as subjects of moral judgments, i. 215 sq.

Benefit of Clergy, i. 491

Benevolence, ch. xxxiii. (ii. 153-185). See Charity, Hospitality

Bestiality, i. 253 sq., ii. 409, 749

Birds, defending their nests, ii. 51; paternal care among, ii. 189 sq.; the duration of conjugal unions among, ii. 192

---- of night, abstinence from eating, ii. 333

---- of prey, prohibition of eating, ii. 321

Blasphemy, ii. 639, 640, 719

Blessings, materialistic conception of, i. 98, 562; pronounced by {839} recipients of gifts, i. 561-565; gods appealed to in, i. 562, 564 sq., ii. 686, 731; of strangers, i. 581-584, ii. 446; of parents, i. 621-627; of old persons, i. 626; in salutations, ii. 151

Blood, effusion of, at funerals, i. 26, 27, 476, ii. 544, 545, 547; abstinence from, i. 187, ii. 334 sq.; as a religious rite, i. 470 sq., ii. 294, 557; pollution of, i. 225, 232, 233, 375-382, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2, 262, 714; shedding of, prohibited in sacred places, i. 380, ii. 635; offered to the dead, i. 475 sq.; drunk or licked in blood-revenge, i. 483 sq.; as a conductor of curses, i. 586, 587, 591, ii. 69, 118-121, 208, 209, 566, 567, 618-622, 687-689; primitive ideas concerning, i. 664 n. ^1; oaths taken upon, ii. 118-121, 621, 622, 687-689; supernatural or medicinal effect ascribed to the partaking of human, ii. 564 sq. See Cannibalism

---- -covenant, the, ii. 206-209, 566 sq.

---- -money. See Compensation for homicide

---- -revenge, i. 477-492, ii. 748; collective responsibility in, i. 24, 25, 30-36, 43; vow of, i. 58; restricted to the actual culprit, i. 71; a cause of social disturbance, i. 182 sq.; in cases of accidental injury, i. 217, 218, 231 sq.; taken upon animals, i. 251-253, 255 256, 258; upon lunatics, i. 271; connection between inheritance and, ii. 54 sq.; between the system of tracing descent and, ii. 211

Bodily integrity, the right to, ch. xxii. (i. 511-525); of the dead, ii. 516 sq.; of gods, ii. 602, 610

Boundaries. See Landmarks

Brother, killing of a, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2. See Fraternal affection, duties

---- the elder, allowed to inflict corporal punishment upon the younger one, i. 515; respect for, i. 605, 606, 614; curses of, i. 626, ii. 703

Buffaloes, abstinence from the flesh of, ii. 320, 322; prohibition of killing, for food, ii. 330

Buildings, human sacrifices offered at the foundation of, i. 447 n. ^5, 461-465; animals sacrificed at the foundation of, ii. 617

Bull-baiting, ii. 509 sq.

Burglary, i. 187, 312, ii. 58, 633

Burial, ii. 521-523, 525-527. 542, 543, 546-548, 704; depending on the mode of death, i. 26, ii. 238-240, 246, 248, 252, 255 sq.; denied to suicides, ii. 238, 250, 549; to murdered persons, ii. 239, 549; to persons struck by lightning, ii. 2 39, 549; to persons who have killed a parent, brother, or child, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; of criminals, ii. 694

Butchers, regarded as unclean, ii. 493; despised, ii. 498

Butter, abstinence from, ii. 326

CALUMNY, ii. 140-142; against dead persons, ii. 519, 552

Calves, abstinence from slaughtering, ii. 331

Camels, revenge in, i. 37 sq.; abstinence from the flesh of, ii. 332, 334 n. ^2

Cannibalism, ch. xlvi. (ii. 553-581); old persons victims of, i. 390, ii. 554, 568 sq.; practised for medicinal purposes, i. 401, ii. 562, 564 sq.; the firstborn a victim of, i. 458 sq., ii. 562; as a punishment, ii. 4, 367, 554, 558 sq.; considered polluting, ii. 538, 575 sq.

Carelessness, i. 210-212, 305-310, 317 sq.

Castes, intermarriage between different, ii. 379. See Rank

Casuistry, ii. 100, 101, 117

Cats, sympathetic resentment in, ii. 52; abstinence from eating, ii. 327, 330, 332; taken for spirits in disguise, ii. 491; their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 583

Cattle, stealing of, i. 187 sq., ii. 14; abstinence from killing, ii. 330, 493 sq.; reverence for, ii. 331 sq.; affection for, ii. 331, 494. See Beef, Calves, Cows, Oxen

---- -rearing, largely a masculine pursuit, i. 634, 636. See Pastoral peoples

Celibacy, ch. xli. (ii. 399-421); a cause of unchastity, ii. 432; of homosexual practices, ii. 467

Character, i. 214, 215, 310-314, 318 sq.; the innate, i. 325 sq.

Charity, ch. xxiii. (i. 526-569); as a duty emphasised by religion, i. {840}549-558, 561-569, ii. 669, 672, 699, 705, 711, 717, 718, 725, 726, 732. See Alms

Charms, made from dead bodies, ii. 204, 546; against the evil eye, ii. 256 n. ^2; put in tombs, ii. 701

Chastity, ch. xlii. (ii. 422-455); suicide as a means of preserving, ii. 242, 251 sq.; fasting the beginning of, ii. 318; required in connection with the religious cult, ii. 406-421, 736

Chiefs, tied by custom, i. 161 sq.; justice administered by, i. 173-176, 180-184, 490 sq.; protecting foreigners and persons who have no relations, i. 180; killing of, i. 43; human sacrifices offered for the purpose of saving the lives of, i. 454-456, 466; sacrificed, i. 466; the practice of compensation encouraged by, i. 490 sq.; disrespect for, punished by gods, i. 626; proprietary rights of, ii. 33; suicide committed on the graves of, ii. 234; labour suspended on the death of, ii. 284; abstinence from fish after the death of, ii. 301; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 527; cannibalism practised by, ii. 558, 574; their tombs asylums, ii. 630; their houses asylums, ii. 636; their persons asylums, ii. 636 sq. See King.

Children, the subjection of, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628); cursed or blessed by their parents, i. 58, 538, 621-627, ii. 703, 715. 716 n. ^2, 732; punished if convicted of a design to kill their father or mother, i. 245; parents killing their infant, i. 378 394-413, 633, ii. 562, 752 sq.; killing their parents, i. 383-386, 522, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; killing or abandoning their aged parents, i. 386-390, 606, 607, 612, 620; eating their parents, i. 390, ii. 554, 568 sq.; parents killing their grown-up, i. 393 sq., ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; a father's affection for his, i. 401, 402, 405, 529-533, ii. 187-190, 193, 397, 748; a mother's affection for her, i. 405, 529-531, ii. 186-190, 193, 748; eaten by their parents or others, i. 401, 458 sq., ii. 554, 555, 562, 568 sq.; parents exposing their new-born, i. 406-412, 689; sacrificed to save the lives of their parents, i. 455, 456, 459-461; sacrificed by their parents, i. 455-461; committing suicide on the death of their parents, i. 473; parents inflicting corporal punishment upon their, i. 513-515, 607, 610; using violence against their parents, i. 513 624 sq., ii. 677; parents' duty of taking care of their, i. 526-533; their duty of taking care of their parents, i. 533-538; their respect for their parents, i. 534-538, 600, 601, 607-613, 616-628, ii. 194; their affection for their parents i. 534-538, 618, ii. 194, 748; for their mothers, i. 618, 659; their duties to their parents emphasised by religion, i. 536, 537, 608, 610, 612, 613, 616, 617, 620-627, ii. 711, 714, 715, 716 n. ^2, 717 732; cursing their parents, i. 564; sold as slaves by their parents, i. 599, 607, 609, 611, 612, 615, 675, 681, 682, 684, 685, 689, 691 sq.; proprietary incapacities of, ii. 27, 28, 57; rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 44-49, 53-57; telling a falsehood in the presence of their parents, ii. 96; addressing abusive language to their parents, ii. 142; their duties to their parents, ii. 166, 748; parents' duties to their, ii. 166, 748; parents committing suicide on the death of their, ii. 232, 244 n. ^3; parents fasting after the death of their, ii. 298-300; fasting after the death of their parents, ii. 298-301; punished after death for inflicting injuries upon their parents, ii. 715; adopted, see Adopted children; illegitimate, see Illegitimate children

Children, young, the anger of, i. 22 sq.; sympathetic resentment in, i. 112; their ideas of right and wrong, i. 115; their respect for the customary, i. 159; injuries committed by, i. 217, 218, 264-269, 316; treatment of, in war i. 335, 336, 342, 343, 369 sq.; sacrificed, i. 454-461; their desire to appropriate and to keep that which has been appropriated, ii. 51; truthfulness and mendacity of, ii. 88 n. ^5, 111 n. ^3, 116, 117, 124-126, 129; disposed to believe what they are told, ii. 109; their {841} dislike of that which is strange or unfamiliar, ii. 227; the altruistic sentiment in, i. 228; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 526, 527, 549; their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 583; the future state of, ii. 673, 727; the future state of unbaptised, ii. 721-723

Chivalry, i. 352-355

Clan, the, i. 627 sq., ii. 202, 213, 214, 216-220, 222 sq.

Class distinction, cleanliness a, ii. 351

Classes, intermarriage between different, ii. 379-382. See Rank

"Classificatory system," the, ii. 393

Cleanliness, ii. 346-356; ceremonial, ii. 294, 295, 352-354, 358, 359, 415-420, 700 n. ^5, 705, 718, 726, 752

Climate, connection between industry and, ii. 269-271; between cleanliness and, ii. 349 sq.

Cock-fighting, ii. 509 sq.

Cocks, prohibition of eating tame, ii. 330

Cocoa, abstinence from, ii. 321; religious veneration of, ii. 591

Common enjoyment of merits, i. 96-99

---- responsibility, in blood-revenge, i. 24, 25, 30-36, 43, 71; in the case of punishment, i. 43-48, 69-72; in the case of sin, i. 48-57, 61-72

"Communal marriage," ii. 445

Community of goods, ii. 50 sq.

Compacts, sealing of, i. 587, ii. 622-624

Compensation, the relation between punishment and, i. 168 sq.; for involuntary destruction of property, i. 222-225, 38 sq.; for bodily injuries, i. 511-513, 517-520, 524 n. ^3, ii. 263; for the seduction of an unmarried woman, ii. 425, 426, 436 sq.; for rape, ii. 438; for adultery, ii. 447 sq.

---- for homicide, i. 183, 484-491; if committed accidentally, i. 217, 219-221, 224, 226; if committed by a child, i. 268; by an idiot, i. 272; if the victim is a woman, i. 420 sq.; if the victim is a slave, i. 423; influenced by the rank of the victim, i. 430 sq.

---- for sin, i. 86 sq.

Compulsion, injuries committed under, i. 284, 285, 316, 319; confounded with causation, i. 322-326

"Compulsion by necessity," i. 285-287, ii. 1

Conduct, i. 202, 203, 214, 215, 314

Confession, i. 84 sq., ii. 360

Conjugal affection, i. 113, 532 sq., ii. 190-193; its influence on the form of marriage, ii. 192, 389, 391; on the duration of marriage, ii. 397; on moral ideas concerning unchastity, ii. 439 sq.

Conscience, i. 105-107, 123-125; an unjust retributer, i. 15 sq.; animals credited with a, i. 249-251

Contributions, military, ii. 27

Contubernium, of slaves, i. 693, 697, 706 sq.; between freemen and slaves, ii. 381

Cooking, abstained from after a death, ii. 304-306

Corporal punishment, ii. 520-525

Cosmopolitanism, ii. 176-179, 182-185

Courage, admiration of, i. 16, 117, ii. 16, 58, 273, 590; the duel regarded as a test of, i. 509; suicide regarded as a test of, ii. 251, 261 sq.; approved of by the supreme being, ii. 679; the future state of a warrior supposed to be determined by his, ii. 698

Couvade, the, ii. 205

Covenanting rites, i. 334 sq., ii. 622-624, 686. See Blood-covenant

Cowardice, forgiveness of enemies regarded as a sign of, i. 73, 74, 485, ii. 145; the secret commission of offences despised as, ii. 58, 96 sq.; lying a sign of, ii. 113; suicide regarded as an act of, ii. 240, 262

Cow-dung, a means of purification, i. 54, ii. 353, 545; suicide committed in, ii. 244

Cows, contact with, regarded as purifying, i. 54; prohibition of eating the flesh of, ii. 327, 330; the killing of, abstained from or prohibited, ii. 330, 331, 497; reverence for, ii. 332. See Cattle

Coyness, female, ii. 435

Cremation, i. 476, ii. 522, 523, 526, 527, 542, 543, 546-548; of suicides, ii. 256 sq.

Criminals, absence of remorse in, i. 90 n. ^1; punished in public, i. 191 {842}sq.; detection of, i. 193; sacrificed, i. 439, 440, 467, 471 sq., ii. 651; enslaved, i. 518, 675, 676, 681, 682, 685, 688-691, ii. 7, 8, 12, 13, 74; eaten, ii. 4, 367, 554, 558 sq.; their blood partaken of, ii. 464 sq.; treatment of the bodies of, ii. 527, 528, 549. See Asylums, Punishment

Crops, robbery of, i. 287, ii. 14 sq.; human sacrifices offered for the purpose of securing good, i. 443-451; unchastity supposed to injure the, ii. 417, 747

Cross, the, ii. 256 n. ^2

Cross-roads, i. 502, ii. 256, 256 sq. n. ^2

Crown, miraculous virtue attributed to the royal, ii. 608 n. ^4, 753

Crucifixion, ii. 256 n. ^2

Cruelty to animals, ii. 496, 508-510

Curiosity, ii. 109, 110, 135, 149, 595, 597

Curses, materialistic conception of, i. 57-61, 70, 233 sq., ii. 583. 584, 703; holiness not allowed to be defiled by, i. 58, 625, ii. 638; of parents, i. 58, 538, 621-627, ii. 703, 715, 716 n. ^2, 732; of the poor, i. 561-565; of magicians and priests, i. 563; of saints, i. 563, 622; of dying persons, i. 563, 626, ii. 245; of dissatisfied guests, i. 584-594, ii. 715, 732; of dissatisfied refugees, i. 585, 587 sq., ii. 636-638; of old persons, i. 622, 626; of husbands, i. 626; of elder brothers and sisters, i. 626, ii. 703; of superiors, i. 626 sq., ii. 703; of women, i. 668; of slaves, i. 716; of their masters, ii. 703; of kings, ii. 703; personified and elevated to the rank of supernatural beings, i. 60, 379, 482, 561, 585, 623, 624, 626, ii. 68, 116, 715, 732; transformed into attributes of gods, i. 379, 561, 562, 585, 624, ii. 68, 116, 715; supernatural beings appealed to in, i. 561, 564 sq., ii. 66-68, 120-123, 658, 686-690, 699, 731; supernatural beings exposed to men's, i. 564, 566, 585, ii. 584, 585, 618-624, 636, 638, 656-659, 700; conducted by various vehicles, i. 586-594, ii. 121, 151, 208, 209, 567, 622-624, 687-690; by blood, i. 586, 587, 591, ii. 69, 118-121, 208, 209, 618-622, 687-689; by human blood or flesh, ii. 566 sq.; in reception ceremonies and salutations, i. 590 sq., ii. 151; pronounced on thieves or as a means of protecting property, ii. 62-69, 703; sacrifices to gods as a means of transferring, ii. 618-624, 658; method of protecting the king against criminals, ii. 637; prayers assuming the character of, ii. 656-659; contained in ordeals, ii. 687-690; influencing men's state in the future life, ii. 692, 693, 708, 709, 715 sq. See L-[(]âr

Customs, and laws as expressions of moral ideas, ch. vii. (i. 158-201); rules of duty, i. 118-122, 159-162; their relations to laws, i. 163-166; stronger than law and religion combined, i. 164; the variety of, i. 327 sq.; the rigidity of ancestral, ii. 519, 520, 541; transgressions of, punished by gods, ii. 670, 728; instituted by the supreme being, ii. 671

DARK, prohibition of eating in the, ii. 309

Daughters, committing suicide on the death of their parents, i. 473. See Children

Days, tabooed, ii. 283-289, 747

Dead, regard for the, ch. xlv. (ii. **515-552); human sacrifices to the, i. 26-28, 472-476, 486, ii. 234, 450, 451, 518; vindictiveness of murdered, i. 232, 372, 375, 376, 378, 379, 406, 476, 481 sq., ii. 559 sq.; the property of the, i. 399, ii. 44, 518, 539 sq., see Inheritance, Wills; the treatment of old persons influenced by beliefs regarding the, i. 620 sq.; interred in the field belonging to the family, ii. 66 n. ^1; charms made from the bodies of the, ii. 204, 546; offerings to the, ii. 302, 303, 400-404, 517, 518, 524, 539, 547 550, 692, 700, 701, 704, 708, cf. Alms; polluting influence attributed to the, ii. 303, 537 sq.; marriages of the, ii. 400; self-regarding pride attributed to the, ii. 519; beliefs as regards the character and activity of the, ii. 528-535, 693; fear of the, ii. 535-546, 548-550, 576; believed to be easily duped, ii. 548; worship of the, ii. 591, 596; revenge taken by the living upon {843} the, ii. 692 sq.; supposed to be taken by the dead upon other, ii. 693 sq. See Annihilation, Burial, Cannibalism, Cremation, Funeral rites, Future life, Future state, Mourning, Scalping, Suicide, Transmigration, Vampires

Death, attributed to the influence of magic, i. 24, 29, ii. 534, 651; self-mutilation after a, i. 26, 27, 476, ii. 524, 528, 544, 545, 547; work suspended after a, ii. 283, 284, 306; polluting influence ascribed to, ii. 283, 302-307, 416, 536-539, 544 sq.; to self-inflicted, ii. 257 n. ^5, 262; to natural, ii. 416, 609; fasting after a, ii. 298-308, 524, 544; abstinence from cooking after a, ii. 304-306; abstinence from sexual intercourse after a, ii. 306; fear of, ii. 535 sq.

Debtors, enslaved, i. 422, 675, 677, 680, 684, 688, 689, 691; creditors starving themselves to death before the doors of their, ii. 245

Debts, the owing of, ii. 93, 705

Deceit. See Truth, regard for

Deformed persons, religious veneration of, ii. 590

Deodand, i. 262-264, 308

Descent, the social influence of a common, ii. 198, 201-206, 220, 224, 227, 748; congruity or discrepancy between the principle of local proximity and the principle of, ii. 202, 219 sq. See Kinship

----, the system of tracing, connection between the authority over children and, i. 597 sq.; supposed connection between the position of women and, i. 655 sq.; the rules of inheritance influenced by, ii. 44-47, 54; the influence of local connections on, ii. 203, 368 sq.; difference between the notion of actual blood-relationship and, ii. 205 sq.; connection between the blood-feud and, ii. 211, 748

Despotism, a cause of the severity of criminal codes, i. 193-196, 198; a cause of deceitful habits, ii. 89, 130 sq.; politeness engendered by, ii. 152; love of youths considered inimical to, ii. 478 sq.

Determinism, i. 320-322, 325 sq.

Dharna, the custom of sitting, ii. 245

Diet, restrictions in, ch. xxxvii, sq. (ii. 290-345). See Food

Disease, cured by contact with a saint, i. 63; transference of, i. 64 sq.; supposed to be caused by supernatural beings, i. 392 sq., ii. 592-594; by the dead, ii. 535; the future state of persons who have died of, i. 392, ii. 238 n. ^3, 698; human flesh or blood partaken of as a remedy against, i. 401, ii. 562, 564 sq.; human sacrifices offered for the purpose of curing, i. 446, 447, 454-457; cured at cross-roads, ii. 256 n. ^2. See Epidemics, Sick persons

Disinterested antipathies. See Antipathies

---- likings. See Likings

Disinterestedness, a characteristic of moral concepts, i. 101; of the moral emotions, i. 102, 103, 107-122

Divorce, i. 514, 528, 630, 632, 638, 641, 646-654, ii. 192, 396-398, 455

Dog-fighting, ii. 509

Dogs, self-regarding pride in, i. 39, ii. 137 sq.; sympathetic resentment in, i. 112, ii. 52; credited with a conscience, i. 249-251; the killing of, considered polluting, i. 381 n. ^6; fighting for their kennels or their prey, ii. 51; supposed deceitfulness of, ii. 125; abstinence from eating, ii. 330, 332; taken for spirits in disguise, ii. 491; regard for, ii. 493, 501, 705; affection for, ii. 495 sq.; Erinyes of, ii. 504; their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 583

Drink, as a conductor of curses, i. 586, 589-591, ii. 121, 208, 209, 567, 687-689

---- , intoxicating, prohibition of, i. 228, ii. 341-345; abstained from after a death, ii. 302. See Drunkenness, Intoxicants, Wine

Droit d'aubaine, ii. 49

Drowned persons, the future state of, ii. 238, 521, 678, 697 sq.

Drunkenness, i. 310, ii. 338-344; injuries committed in, i. 277-282, 306; attributed to possession by a god or spirit, i. 278, 281, ii. 344

Duel, the, ch. xxi. (i. 497-510); i. 163, 306, ii. 9, 145, 449

"Duty," analysis of the concept, i. 134-137; corresponding to a "right," i. 140 sq.; the relation between "virtue" and, i. 149 sq.; between "merit" and, i. 151

{844} Duty, the feeling of, as a motive, i. 283 sq.

EAGLEHAWKS, abstinence from eating, ii. 326, 332

Earthly desires, sinfulness of, ii. 361-363

Eclipses, supposed connection between human activity and, ii. 284 sq.; fasting in connection with, ii. 309 sq.; of the moon, attributed to the influence of evil spirits, ii. 313

Education, a means of communicating resentment, i. 114 sq.; its influence on the regard for truth, ii. 124; on moral ideas relating to self-regarding conduct, ii. 266-268; leading to homosexual practices, ii. 468-470

Eggs, abstinence from, ii. 320, 325, 326, 329

Election, divine, the future state of men determined by, ii. 719 sq.

Elephants, the feeling of revenge in, i. 37 sq.; abstinence from eating, ii. 329

Emasculation, as a punishment, i. 45, 521. See Eunuch priests

Emigration, punished by law, ii. 175; more injurious to the State than suicide, ii. 259

Emotions, moral judgments referring to, i. 215

Endogamy, ii. 378-382

Enemies, killing of, regarded as praiseworthy, i. 331-333; the future state influence by the killing of, i. 332, 373, ii. 693; hospitality towards, i. 576, 577, 587 sq. See Blood-revenge, Forgiveness, Revenge, War

Envy, a hindrance to sympathetic retributive kindliness, i. 129; of gods, ii. 361, 714, 716

Epidemics, supposed to be caused by supernatural beings, i. 27, ii. 592-594; human sacrifices offered for the purpose of stopping or preventing, i. 66, 441, 442, 449; fasting during, ii. 315

Equinoxes, fasting at, ii. 309, 310, 312 sq.

Equivalence, the rule of, i. 177-180; i. 34, 35, 200, 217-219, 494, 496, 501, 511, 519 sq., ii. 233

Equivocation, ii. 100, 101, 117

Erinyes, i. 60, 379, 482, 561, 585, 623, 626, ii. 68, 504, 714, 715, 732

Ethics, the object of scientific, i. 18

Eucharist, the, i. 666, ii. 295, 415 n. **^8, 417, 480, 564; the ordeal of, ii. 690

Eunuch priests, ii. 408, 414, 488 n. ^6

Evil, materialistic conception of, i. 56, 57, 457; transference of, combined with a sacrifice, i. 62-65

---- eye, the, i. 561, 563, 584, 591-594, ii. 256 n. ^2, 354

---- spirits, lunatics supposed to be possessed with, i. 270, 274, 275, ii. 593; intoxicated persons supposed to be possessed with, i. 281, ii. 344; persecuting ghosts replaced by, i. 378 sq., ii. 493; disease supposed to be caused by, i. 392 sq., ii. 592-594; old women regarded as, i. 619; burying apart of persons supposed to have been killed by, ii. 239; eclipses of the moon attributed to the influence of, ii. 313; water regarded as haunted by, ii. 355; scourging as a means of driving away, ii. 358; sacred words as a weapon against, ii. 418; certain animals taken for, ii. 491; butchers regarded as haunted by, ii. 493; prevented from doing harm to the dead, ii. 523, 524, 544; the ghosts of dead persons regarded as, ii. 531-534, 693; places of striking appearance supposed to be haunted by, ii. 589; unexpected events ascribed to the influence of, ii. 594; taboos imposed upon the names of, ii. 640, 642; magic practised with the assistance of, ii. 649 sq.; struggle of men and gods against, ii. 701, 702, 704-706, 729

Executioner, tribal, i. 174 sq.; the injured party acting as, i. 184 sq.

Exogamy. See Incest

Expiation, ii. 356-361; fasting as a means of, ii. 315-318; vicarious, ii. 719 sq.

Expiatory sacrifice, vicarious, i. 65-70, 438-440

Exposure of infants, i. 406-412; a source of slavery, i. 689

FAITH, considered necessary for salvation, ii. 719-721, 725-727. See Unbelief

Faithfulness. See Good faith

False accusation, i. 522, ii. 79, 80, 140-142

{845} False testimony, ii. 86 n. ^4, 91, 92, 96-98, 123 n. ^1, 717

Falsehood. See Truth, regard for

Family, the, i. 113, 533, 627 sq., ii. 195, 196, 198, 199, 202, 223; the joint, i. 539 sq., ii. 213-216

Famines, human sacrifices offered in connection with, i. 442 sq.; cannibalism caused by, ii. 555, 577 sq. See Crops

Fas, i. 579 sq., ii. 717

Fasting, ii. 292-318; enjoined by religion, i. 271, ii. 246, 292-298, 308-318, 358, 406, 725; as a means of purification, i. 375, ii. 294-296, 358; as a penance, ii. 246, 315-318, 406; after a death, ii. 298-308, 524, 544

Fat, abstinence from, i. 187, 229, ii. 312

Fatalism, i. 323-326

Father, the, his authority over his children, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628); permitted to punish his children with death, i. 393 sq.; to kill or expose his new-born children, i. 394-411; to inflict corporal punishment upon his children, i. 513-515, 607, 610; to sell his children, i. 599, 607, 609, 611, 612, 615, 675, 681, 682, 684, 685, 689, 691; his affection for his children, i. 401, 402, 405, 529-533. ii. 187-190, 193, 397, 748; obliged to protect and support his family, i. 526-533; descent traced through, i. 655 sq., ii. 44-47, 54, 202, 203, 205, 206, 211, 220; the son allowed to eat only certain foods after the death of, ii. 301 sq. See Parents

Fear, i. 40 sq.; of death, ii. 535 sq.; as an element in the religious sentiment, ii. 612-614, 725; of punishment in the future life, ii. 735

Females, the sexual impulse of, i. 657 sq., ii. 435

Feticide, i. 378, 408, 409, 413-417, ii. 705

Filial affection, i. 534-538, 618, 659, ii. 194, 748

---- reverence, i. 533-538, 600, 601, 607-613, 616-628, ii. 194

Firstborn child, the, all children killed except, i. 398; killed, i. 458-460, ii. 562; eaten, i. 458, ii. 562; regarded as sacred, ii. 538 n. ^2

Firstborn son, the, sacrifice of, i. 457-461; eaten, i. 458 sq.; considered identical with his father, i. 460; fasting on the eve of Passover, ii. 296. See Primogeniture

Fish, anger shown by, i. 22, ii. 51; abstinence from eating, ii. 321, 322, 324 sq.; after a death, ii. 301; deference shown for, ii. 492; killing of, ii. 497 sq.

Fishing peoples, the position of women among, i. 660; slavery among, i. 672; social aggregates of, ii. 198-200; filthiness a characteristic of, ii. 349

Flagellation, ii. 294, 357-359

Flagrante delicto, offenders caught, i. 290-294, ii. 8, 13, 17, 18, 58, 429, 447

Food, prohibitory rules relating to, ch. xxxvii. sq. (ii. 290-345); stealing of, i. 286, 287, 676, ii. 14, 15, 57 sq.; as a conductor of curses, i. 586-592, ii. 622-624; detrimental to holiness, ii. 294-296; the eating of certain kinds of, forbidden by gods, ii. 326, 33, 335, 671

Forbearances, i. 209, 210, 303-305

Foreigners, protected by the chief or king, i. 180, 181, 338; killing of, i. 331-334, 337-34, 370, 371, 373; sacrifice of, i. 467 sq.; infliction of bodily injuries upon, i. 519; kindness to, i. 545, 556-558, 570-572, 581; enslaving of, i. 674, 675, 689, 690, 691, 714 sq.; respect for the proprietary rights of, ii. 2, 11, 59; demoralising influence of, ii. 2, 126-129, see White men; robbery committed upon, ii. 20-25, 58 sq.; reduced to serfdom, ii. 24; rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 49; deceiving of, ii. 87, 88, 90, 94, 97, 112, 126-129; duties to, ii. 166; despised, ii. 171-174, 532; disregard of their interests, ii. 176; antipathy to, ii. 227; marriages with, ii. 378, 381 sq.; eaten, ii. 554; sacrilege committed by, ii. 648. See Strangers

Forgery, punished with death, i. 187 sq.; with mutilation, i. 521

Forgiveness, i. 73-79, 84-88, 99, 311, 318, ii. 145, 360

Foundation sacrifices. See Buildings

Fowls, abstinence from eating, ii. 320-322, 325, 327, 329, 332; affection for, ii. 495

{846} Foxes, abstinence from eating, ii. 327

Fraternal affection, ii. 194, 195, 748

---- duties, i. 538, ii. 748

Fraud. See Truth, regard for

Free love, ch. xlii. (ii. 422-455). See Unchastity

Freedmen, marriages with, i. 688, ii. 379; not allowed to bring criminal charges against freeborn persons, i. 697

Freedom, personal, i. 597, ii. 265

Free-will, moral valuation and, i. 320-326

Frogs, prohibition of eating, ii. 321

Funeral rites, ii. 519-528, 536-552; the ordinary, denied to suicides, ii. 238, 248, 250, 252-254, 549. See Blood (effusion of, at funerals; offered to the dead), Burial, Cremation, Dead (human sacrifices to the; offerings to the), Self-mutilation (after a death)

Future life, belief in retribution in a, among civilised races, i. 258, 259, 519, 550-553, 555, 556, 579, 580, 625, 650, 683, 687, ii. 165, 284, 341, 417, 479, 497, 700, 705, 706, 708-713, 715, 716, 718-720, 725, 734 sq.; among uncivilised peoples, i. 403, 542-544, 578, ii. 59, 60, 69, 115, 271, 272, 671-681, 683-685, 690-695; the belief in a, ii. 515 sq.; its influence on the notions concerning homicide, i. 382; concerning the killing of old or sick persons, i. 390, 392; concerning infanticide, i. 411 sq.; concerning feticide, i. 416 sq.; concerning suicide, ii. 235-237, 244, 253, 262. See Dead

---- state, the, of persons who have been struck by lightning, i. 26, ii. 544, 549, 697 sq.; who have not slain any enemies, i. 332; who have slain enemies, i. 373, ii. 693; who have died of old age, i. 390, ii. 235, 238 n. ^3, 698; of disease, i. 392, ii. 238 n. ^3, 698; by violence, i. 481 sq., ii. 237-239, 242; by accident, ii. 238, 239, 241; by starvation, ii. 238 n. ^3; who have committed suicide, ii. 235-239, 242-244, 246, 253, 262, 694, 710; who have been killed in war, ii. 237, 521, 694, 697, 704, 708; who have been drowned, ii. 238, 521, 678, 697 sq.; who have suffered pain in this life, ii. 360; who have died unmarried and childless, ii. 399-404; who have refrained from connections with women, ii. 414 sq.; who have committed perjury, ii. 715 sq.; of women, i. 662 sq., ii. 673; of women who have died in childbirth, ii. 238 n. ^3, 678; of children, ii. 673, 727; of unbaptised children, i. 411, 412, 416 sq., ii. 721-723; of the heathen, ii. 720 sq.; influenced by human sacrifices offered to the dead, i. 472-476, ii. 518; by the mutilations and self-bleedings of mourners, i. 476, ii. 547; by knowledge of religious truth, ii. 132-134, 719-721, 725-727; by the treatment of the dead person's corpse, ii. 238, 521-523, 546, 548, 694, 704; by offerings made to the dead, ii. 400-404, 517, 518, 524, 539, 692, 700, 701, 704, 708; by alms given on behalf of the dead, ii. 550-552; by prayer on behalf of the dead, ii. 552; by curses, ii. 692, 693, 708, 709, 715 sq.; by rank, ii. 698; by magical practices, ii. 700, 701, 706, 709, 710, 712; by vicarious expiation, ii. 719 sq.; by divine election, ii. 719 sq.; by faith, ii. 719-721, 725-727; by sacramental grace, ii. 719 sq., by baptism, ii. 721-723

GENERALITY, the moral emotions characterised by a flavour of, i. 104, 105, 107, 117-123

Generosity, charity and, ch. xxiii. (i. 526-569)

Gifts, blessings pronounced by recipients of, i. 561-565; the danger of accepting, i. 593 sq.

Girls, at puberty, ii. 307 sq.

Gluttony, ii. 290 sq.

Goat-dung, a means of purification, i. 376

-----flesh, abstinence from, ii. 322, 332

"God," definition of the term, ii. 602

Goddesses, jealous of the chastity of their priests, ii. 414

Gods, duties to, ch. xlviii. sq. (ii. 602-662); as guardians of morality, chs. l.-lii. (ii. 663-737); punish innocent persons in consequence of the sins of the guilty, i. 48-72, ii. 660; punish unchastity, i. 49, ii. 675; curses personified {847} and elevated to the rank of supernatural agents or, i. 60, 379, 482, 561, 585, 623, 624, 626, ii. 68, 116, 715, 732; human sacrifices offered to, i. 62, 63, 65, 66, 339, 434-472, ii. 295, 296, 419, 559, 562, 563, 579, 651, 697; reward undeserving persons in consequence of the merits of others, i. 96-99, ii. 660; connection between the severity of punishment and the belief in, i. 193-198; disobedience to, i. 194-198, ii. 659 sq.; revengeful feelings attributed to, i. 194, 198, 438-440, 471 sq., ii. 660, 661, 667, 668, 702, 714; attach undue importance to the outward aspect of conduct, i. 227-231, 233-235, ii. 714; judge upon human actions without much regard to their motives, i. 299-302; punish homicide, i. 378-380, ii. 669, 672, 676, 684, 686, 700, 714, 717, 732; curses transformed into attributes of, i. 379, 561, 562, 585, 624, ii. 68, 116, 715; blood pollution shunned by, i. 380-382; enjoin or approve of charity, i. 549-558. 561-569, ii. 669, 672, 699, 705, 711, 717, 718, 725, 726, 732; appealed to in curses or oaths, i. 561, 564 sq., ii. 66, 67, 120-123, 658, 686-690, 699, 731 sq.; in blessings, i. 562, 564 sq., ii. 686, 731; enjoin hospitality, i. 578-580, ii. 669, 711, 714, 717, 718, 726, 732; exposed to the curses of men, i. 585, ii. 618-624, 636, 638, 656-659, 700; protect refugees, i. 585, ii. 629-633, 636, 638, 714; enjoin regard for parents, i. 610, 624, ii. 711, 714, 717, 732; punish abandoning of old persons, i. 620; punish disrespect for chiefs, i. 626; women shunned by, i. 664-666; guardians of property, ii. 59-69, 669, 675-677, 679, 684, 686, 699, 700, 705, 714, 717, 732; guilty of falsehood, ii. 94, 95, 98; guardians of truth and good faith, ii. 96, 114-123, 128, 129, 669, 672, 675-677, 684, 686, 699, 700, 703-705, 707, 711, 714, 717, 726, 732; perjury regarded as an offence against, ii. 122, 122 sq. n. ^10; perjury punished by, ii. 123 n. ^1, 684, 686, 714; condemn pride, ii. 144 sq.; different, fused into one, ii. 225 sq.; approve of suicide, ii. 236, 244, 261; suicide offensive to, ii. 237, 243, 245-249, 251-254, 260, 263; agriculture pleasing to, ii. 275, 277; commend industry, ii. 275, 280, 281, 675, 705; require pure sacrifices, ii. 295 sq.; prohibit the eating of certain foods, ii. 326, 330, 335 671; disapprove of abstinence from intoxicating drink, ii. 339; disapprove of drunkenness, ii. 342; demand ceremonial cleanliness, ii. 352, 353, 700 n. ^5, 705, 718, 726; punish ablutions, ii. 355; self-mortification pleasing to, ii. 356-361, 421; exciting the compassion of, ii. 361; envious of men, ii. 361, 714, 716; punish incest, ii. 375, 376, 671; women married to, ii. 412-414; sexual **pollution shunned by, ii. 418; addicted to homosexual practices, ii. 472, 474; eating of, ii. 563 sq., see Totem; the tendency to make them more and more perfect, ii. 599, 600, 730, 731, 733 sq.; not necessarily immortal, ii. 602 sq.; killing of, ii. 602-610, 753 sq., see Totem; punished by men, ii. 610; subject to human needs, ii. 610 sq.; sacrifices to, ii. 611-626, see Sacrifice; fear of, ii. 612-614, 725; malevolent, ii. 613, 665-667, 706, 707, 709, 714, 716, 728, 729, 733; benevolent, ii. 613-615, 667-669, 697-708, 712, 713, 716, 725, 728, 729, 731; assistance expected from, ii. 614-616; gratitude to, ii. 615 sq.; property of, ii. 626 sq.; self-regarding pride of, ii. 639-655; blasphemy against, ii. 639, 640, 719; taboos imposed upon the names of, ii. 640-643; intolerance of, ii. 643-647, 649, 650, 652; tolerance of, ii. 647-649, 652 sq.; free from human weaknesses, ii. 652; prayers to, ii. 653-659, see Prayer; priests regarded as manifestations of, ii. 657, 709; the communal character of the relations between men and their, ii. 661; selection of, ii. 662, 729 sq.; punish transgressions of custom, ii. 670, 728; punish bad behaviour towards old and sick persons, ii. 672, 675; punish adultery, ii. 675, 676, 684, 686, 700, 717; love justice, ii. 675, 684, 686, 699, 700, 703, 704, 732; approve of valour, ii. 679; fighting against evil {848} spirits, ii. 701, 702, 704-706, 729; invoked by thieves, ii. 733. See Guardian spirits, Religion, Supernatural beings, Supreme beings, Totem

"Golden rule, the," i. 102 sq.

"Good," analysis of the concept, i. 145-147

"---- deeds," i. 299-302

Good faith, regard for truth and, ch. xxx. sq. (ii. 72-131)

Gratitude, i. 21, 42, 43, 93, 94, 318, 319, 538, 618, ii. 154-166; to gods, ii. 615 sq.

Greetings, i. 590-592, ii. 146, 147, 149-151

Gregarious instinct, the, ii. 197 sq.

Gregariousness, i. 94, 95, 113, ii. 195-197. 748

Grief, expressions of, ii. 283, 308, 316, 528

Group marriage, ii. 387, 392-396, 752

Guardian spirits, i. 373, 464 sq., ii. 210, 406, 528-531, 588, 666, 668, 669, 675, 676, 702

HABIT, the influence of, on moral ideas, i. 159, 160, 402, 533, 559, 646, ii. 52, 125-131, 146, 185, 272, 335, 343, 351, 392, 440, 441, 455, 471, 484, 509, 577, 578, 580; on the authority of the law, i. 163 sq.

Hair, conditional curses seated in the, i. 57 sq.

Handicraft, moral valuation of, ii. 273, 274, 278-280, 282 sq.

Handshaking, ii. 150, 151, 623 sq.

Happiness, regard for other persons' ch. xxxiii. (ii. 153-185); for one's own, ii. 265

Hares, abstinence from eating, ii. 333 sq.

Head-hunting, i. 333, 373, 544

Heedlessness, i. 211, 305-310

Hell, notions about, ii. 60, 284, 417, 672, 674, 675, 677, 678, 683, 692, 706, 723, 724, 727

Heresy, ii. 646 sq.; punishment of, i. 47, 50, 245, 493; considered a legitimate cause of war, i. 349-352, 359; judicial torture in cases of, i. 523; a bar to intermarriage, ii. 380 sq.; homosexual practices associated with, ii. 486-489; the future state influenced by, ii. 721

Holiness, must not be defiled by curses or oaths, i. 58, 625, ii. 638; by blood, i. 380-382; by women, i. 664-666; by food, ii. 294-296; by certain kinds of food, ii. 322; by intoxicating drink, ii. 344 sq.; by sexual pollution, ii. 415-420, 752; very susceptible to any polluting influence, ii. 352, 353, 608-610; objects endowed with, must not be appropriated for ordinary purposes, ii. 627 sq.; a god's, polluted by his name being mentioned in profane conversation, ii. 643; attributed to sacrificial victims, i. 63, 65, 69, 444-447, ii. 563, 625, 658; its magic virtue transferred by contact, i. 63-65, 69, 444-446, ii. 605, 606, 625, 754; by eating, i. 446, ii. 562-564, 605, 625; by sexual intercourse, i. 593, ii. 444-446, 488; looked upon as a transferable entity, i. 586, ii. 607-610, 754; contact with, regarded as dangerous, ii. 538 n. ^2 See Sacred places

Home, love of, ii. 167-169, 179 sq.

Homestead, sanctity of the, i. 587, ii. 635 n. ^4

Homicide, in general, chs. xiv-xvi. (i. 327-382); punished with death i. 171, 172, 187, 189, 491, 492; considered polluting, i. 225, 232, 233, 375-382, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2, 262, 714; stigmatised by religion, i. 345, 346, 378-380, 382, ii. 669, 672, 676, 684, 686, 700, 705, 714, 716 n. ^2, 717, 732; the influence of rank on the criminality of, i. 430-433; duels in cases of, i. 501 sq. See Blood-revenge, Compensation for homicide, Duel, Head hunting, Human sacrifice, Killing, Manslaughter, Manslayers, Punishment of Death, War

Homosexual love, ch. xliii. (ii. 456-489), 752 sq.

Honey, abstained from after a death, ii. 301

Honour, duels of, i. 498-503, 507-510; respect for other men's, ii. 137-143

Hope, as an element in religion, ii. 614, 735; in rewards after death, ii. 735

Horses, stealing of, i. 187 sq., ii. 14; abstinence from the flesh of, ii. 322, 335

Hospitality, ch. xxiv. (i. 570-596); i. 333, 340, 540, 542, 543, 545, 548, 549, 555; enjoined by religion, i. {849} 578-580, ii. 669, 711, 714, 715, 717, 718, 726, 732

Houses, stealing from, i. 187 sq., ii. 15, 16, 58, see Burglary; asylums, i. 587, ii. 630, 635 n. ^4, 636 sq.

Human effigies, sacrifice of, i. 468-470, 475

---- sacrifice, ch. xix. (i. 434-476); i. 26-28, 62, 63, 65-67, 339, 486, ii. 234, 295, 296, 419, 450, 451, 518, 579, 651, 697; the execution of blood-revenge a kind of, i. 476, 481 sq.; suicide as a kind of, ii. 234-236; combined with cannibalism, ii. 559, 562 sq.

Humility, ii. 144-146; sacrifice as a symbol of, ii. 625 sq.

Hunting peoples, vegetable food provided by the women among, i. 634, ii. 273; the position of women among, i. 660 sq.; slavery hardly known among, i. 672; social aggregates of, ii. 198-200; the form of marriage among, ii. 389 sq.

Husbands, their power over their wives, ch. xxvi. (i. 629-669); wives punished if convicted of a design to kill their, i. 245; crimes committed by wives in the presence of their, i. 284; killing their wives, i. 418, 419, 631; wives killing their, i. 419 sq.; wives sacrificed on the death of their, i. 472-474, ii. 450 sq.; wives committing suicide on the death of their, i. 473 sq., ii. 232, 234, 235, 241, 242, 244, 247; inflicting bodily injuries upon their wives, i. 514-516, 631; their duty to protect and support their wives, i. 526-529, 532 sq.; lending their wives to guests, i. 575, 593; living with their fathers-in-law, i. 601, 656 sq., ii. 202, 203; curses of, i. 626; selling their wives as slaves, i. 675. 684; belief in a mysterious bond of sympathy between wives and, ii. 205; wives fasting on the death of their, ii. 298-301; adultery committed by, ii. 397, 451-455; eating their wives, ii. 555. See Marital affection, Marriage, Widowers

IDIOTS, injuries committed by, i. 269-273, 275; objects of religious reverence, i. 270 sq.; kindness to, i. 547

Idleness, ii. 268-277, 281 sq.; a cause of uncleanliness, ii. 350 sq.

Illegitimate children, rules of inheritance relating to, i. 47, ii. 46, 48, 49, 56 sq.; treatment of, i. 47, ii. 431, 439; sacrifice of, i. 467

Impartiality, apparent, a characteristic of the moral emotions, i. 103, 104, 107, 117-122

Inanimate things, revenged upon or punished, i. 26, 27, 260-264, 308; retributive emotions evoked by, i. 26, 27, 260-264, 315, 318; conceived as animate, i. 27, 263, ii. 595; moral praise and blame not applied to, i. 319

Incantations, ii. 656-659

Incest, prohibition and horror of, i. 174. 175, 177, 197. 492, ii. 364-378, 747-752; stigmatised by religion, ii. 375, 376, 671

Indemnification, i. 168, 169, 308 sq. See Compensation

Independence, love of national, ii. 170, 175

"Indifferent, the morally," i. 154-157

Industry, ii. 268-282; commended by religion, ii. 275, 280, 281, 675, 705; cleanliness promoted by, ii. 35

Infanticide, i. 378, 394-413, 633, ii. 562; supposed relationship between the social reaction against homosexuality and against, ii. 484, 485, 752 sq.

Infants, exposure of, i. 406-412; a source of slavery, i. 689. See Infanticide

Inheritance, rules of, ii. 44-49, 53-57

Initiation ceremonies, instituted by the All-father, ii. 671

"Injustice," analysis of the concept, i. 141-145

Injustice, punished by the supreme being, ii. 675

"Instinct," the meaning of the word, ii. 374 n. ^2

Insults, i. 39, 502, 503, 509, 510, 524 sq., ii. 110, 138-143; to the dead, ii. 519; to gods, ii. 639-652

Intellectual disability, agents under, ch. x. (i. 249-282)

Intemperance, ii. 290 sq.

Intentions, i. 204-206, 212 sq.; punishment of bare, i. 244 sq.

Intolerance, religious, ii. 643-653

{850} Intoxicants, religious, veneration of, ii. 591 sq. See Drink, intoxicating; Drunkenness; Wine

Inversion, sexual, ii. 465-470, 752 sq.

JEALOUSY, ii. 387, 389, 449, 450, 751

Jinn (jnûn), i. 378, 379, 619, ii. 355, 493. 589, 593-594, 640, 642, 650

Joint family, the, i. 539 sq., ii. 213-216

"Judgment of God," war looked upon as a, i. 358, 360; the duel as a, i. 504-507. See Ordeals

Jus primæ noctis, ii. 395, 752

"Justice," analysis of the concept, i. 141-145

Justice, the sense of, among savages, i. 124, 126-129; loved by gods, ii. 675, 684, 686, 699, 700, 703, 704. 732

Karma, ii. 711

Killing, in self-defence, i. 288-290; of foreigners, i. 331-334, 337-34, 370, 371, 373; of enemies, i. 331-333, 373, ii. 693; of slaves, i. 378, 421-429, 696, 707; of infants by their parents, i. 378, 394-413, 633, ii. 562; of human embryos, i. 378, 408, 409, 413-417, ii. 705; of parents by their children, i. 383-386, 522, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; or abandoning of aged parents, i. 386-390, 606, 607, 612, 620; or abandoning of sick persons, i. 391-393, ii. 542; of grown-up children by their parents, i. 393 sq., ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; of wives by their husbands, i. 418, 419, 631; of women, i. 418-421; of husbands by their wives, i. 419 sq.; of freemen by slaves, i. 429, 430, 491 n. ^5; of chiefs, i. 430; of the firstborn child, i. 458-460, ii. 562; of the firstborn son, i. 458-461; of departed souls, ii. 516 sq.; of divine beings, ii. 602-610, 753 sq.; of disappointing magicians, ii. 609. See Blood-revenge, Compensation for homicide, Duel, Head hunting, Homicide, Human sacrifice, Manslaughter, Manslayers, Punishment of death, Suicide, War

Killing of animals, ch. xliv. (ii. 490-514); in consequence of harm done by them, i. 26, 27, 251-260; of sacred animals, i. 227, ii. 603-606, 609; of totem animals, ii. 210, 603, 604, 606; of vermin, i. 26, 27, 251; dogs, i. 381 n. ^6, ii. 501; monkeys, ii. 329, 490, 513; buffaloes, ii. 330; sheep, ii. 330; cattle, ii. 330, 493 sq.; cows, ii. 330, 331, 497; the ploughing ox, **ii. 330, 331, 493. 494, 504; calves, ii. 331; bees, ii. 490; pigeons, ii. 490; storks, ii. 490; swallows, ii. 490; ravens, ii. 491; toads, ii. 491; fish, ii. 497 sq. See Sacrifice

King, the, tied by custom, i. 161 sq.; the poor and the weak protected by, i. 180 sq.; the right of pardon a prerogative of, i. 192, 196, 226; an object of religious veneration, i. 194, ii. 606-610, 754; homicide committed by the command of, i. 285; strangers protected by, i. 338; homicide regarded as an injury inflicted upon, i. 374; sacrificed, i. 443, 466; human sacrifices offered for the purpose of saving the life of, i. 454-457, 466; proprietary rights of, ii. 33; loyalty to, ii. 180, 182; suicide regarded as an offence against, ii. 240, 263 n. ^1; taboos imposed upon, ii. 287 sq., 407, 418; the custom of shutting up doors used by, ii. 538 n. ^2; cannibalism as a duty incumbent upon, ii. 558; killing of, ii. 606-610, 753 sq.; his burial place an asylum, ii. 630; his house an asylum, ii. 636; his person an asylum, ii. 636 sq.; swearing on the life of, ii. 637; criminals prevented from cursing, ii. 637; curses pronounced by, ii. 703

Kinship, mutual assistance imposed as a duty by, i. 538-540; the social influence of, ii. 198, 201-206, 220, 224, 227, 748. See Descent

Knots, magic, ii. 585, 619, 652

Knowledge, regard for, ii. 131-136; of religious truth, influencing the future state, ii. 132-134, 719-721, 725-727

Known concomitants of acts, i. 212-214, 249

LABOUR, ii. 268-283; the division of, between the sexes i. 633-637, ii. 271; property acquired by, ii. 41-43, 53, 69-71; suspension of, {851} on various occasions, ii. 283-289; temporarily forbidden to men who have eaten human flesh, ii. 575

L-[(]ahd, ii. 623 sq.

Lamentations at funerals, ii. 524, 528, 541 sq.

Landmarks, removing of, i. 186, ii. 60, 61, 67-69, 703, 714, 717

Language, as a communicator of moral emotions, i. 115-117; as an expression of moral concepts, i. 131-133; the influence of a common, ii. 167, 170, 181; as an emblem of nationality, ii. 224 sq.

L-[(]âr, i. 57, 58, 566, 586, 587, 591, ii. 584-586, 618-620, 623, 638

Laws, customs and, as expressions of moral ideas, ch. vii. (i. 158-201); their relations to customs, i. 163-166

Lent fast, ii. 295, 308 sq.

Levirate, the, i. 528

Lex talionis. See Equivalence, the rule of

Libel, i. 522, ii. 96, 141

Lightning, persons struck by, i. 26, ii. 239, 544, 549, 697 sq.

Likings, disinterested, i. 117, ii. 16, 58, 185, 227, 261, 262, 266, 267, 744-746

Limbus, ii. 722

Lions, their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 583

Love. See Affection, Free love, Homosexual love

Loyalty, ii. 180, 182

Lunacy, attributed to demoniacal possession, i. 270, 274 sq., ii. 593; to malignant magical agency, i. 317, ii. 531 sq.; regarded as a divine punishment, i. 274 sq.; as a punishment inflicted by a saint, ii. 628

Lunatics, injuries committed by, i. 189, 269-277, 298, 299, 316, 317, 319; objects of religious reverence, i. 270 sq., ii. 590; burned as witches, i. 273

Luxury, ii. 266

Lying. See Truth, regard for

Lynching, i. 91

MADNESS. See Lunacy

Magic, regarded as a cause of death, i. 24, 29, ii. 534, 651; as a cause of lunacy, i. 317, ii. 531 sq.; expertness in, attributed to strangers, i. 584; to old persons, i. 619 sq.; to women, i. 620, 666-668; the position of slaves influenced by the dread of, i. 716; fasting in connection with, ii. 293 sq.; definitions of, ii. 584, 753; attitude of religion towards, ii. 649, 650, 652, 753; its influence on moral ideas, ii. 696; supposed to influence the future state of men, ii. 700, 701, 706, 709, 710, 712. See Blessings, Blood, Charms, Cross, Cross-roads, Curses, Evil eye, Knots, L-[(]ahd, L-[(]âr, Magicians, Oaths, Ordeals, Prayer, Purificatory ceremonies, Sacrifice, Sexual intercourse (as a magical or religious rite), Spitting, Transference, Witchcraft

----, homopathic, ii. 446 n. ^7, 753

----, sympathetic, i. 589 sq., ii. 204, 205, 209 n. ^5, 546, 566, 643

Magicians, curses of, i. 563; sexual intercourse with, i. 593 n. ^1; abstain from certain foods, ii. 322, 327; purificatory ceremonies of, ii. 352; celibacy compulsory on, ii. 405 sq.; conjugal faithfulness compulsory on persons who wish to become, ii. 419; addicted to homosexual practices, ii. 458, 459, 465, 472, 477, 484, 486 sq.; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 527; cannibalism of, ii. 564; killing of disappointing, ii. 609; their residences asylums, ii. 631. See Witches; cf. Priests

Males, the sexual impulse of, i. 657

Mammals, paternal care among, ii. 189 sq.; maternal care among, ii. 190; the duration of conjugal unions among, ii. 192

Man-gods, eating of, ii. 563 sq.; killing of, ii. 606-610, 753 sq.

Mankind at large, duties to. See Cosmopolitanism

Manslaughter, distinguished from murder, i. 294-298, ii. 633

Manslayers, regarded as unclean, i. 225, 232, 233, 375-382, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; adoption of unintentional, i. 484; refuge denied to, ii. 632 sq.

Marital affection, i. 113, 532 sq., ii. 190-193. See Conjugal affection

Marriage, ch. xl. (ii. 364-398); as a compensation for homicide, i. 484; the father's consent required for a daughter's, i. 599, 609, 611, 613, 615 sq., ii. 383; for a son's, i. 609, 613, 615 sq.; the parents' {852} consent required for a child's, i. 607, 608, 617, 618, 624 sq.; slaves prohibited from contracting a legal, i. 693, 697, 706 sq.; prohibition of, between white and coloured persons, i. 714; between relations by adoption, ii. 369, 374, 375, 748-750, 752; regarded as a duty, ii. 399-405; enjoined by religion, ii. 399-404; between dead persons, ii. 400; forbidden to persons whose function it is to perform religious or magical rites, ii. 405-409, 412-414, 418-421; considered impure, ii. 410-412; between a god and a woman, ii. 412-414; avoidance of, between cannibals and their non-cannibal neighbours, ii. 571; the contracting of a second, forbidden to widows, i. 475, ii. 450 sq.; to priests, ii. 412; considered improper for widowers, ii. 451. See Divorce, Group marriage, Incest, Levirate

Marriage by capture, ii. 382 sq.

---- by purchase, i. 421, 599, 632 sq., ii. 382-385, 751; a hindrance to polygyny, ii. 389; the marriage tie strengthened by, ii. 397; the standard of female chastity raised by, ii. 436, 437, 440

---- portion, ii. 385 sq.; the marriage tie strengthened by the, ii. 397

Maternal affection, i. 405, 529-531, ii. 186-190, 193, 748

---- duties, i. 526, 533, **ii. 748

---- rights, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628), **ii. 748

Matter, regarded as impure, ii. 362 sq.

Meat, manslayers prohibited from eating, i. 375; abstained from before the offering of a sacrifice, ii. 296; after a death, ii. 301, 302, 304 sq. See Vegetarianism

----, fresh, abstained from after a death, ii. 300 sq.; by girls at puberty, ii. 307 sq.

Medicines, religious veneration of, ii. 591, 641

Men, the occupations of, i. 633-637; the sexual impulse of, i. 657; forbidden to eat certain foods, ii. 321 sq.; extra-matrimonial intercourse of, ii. 422-434, 436-455; the preference given to virgin brides by, ii. 434-437, 440; homosexual practices between, ch. xliii. (ii. 456-489), ii. 752 sq.

"Merit," analysis of the concept, i. 150-152

Merits, i. 86, ii. 360 sq., common enjoyment of, i. 96-99; the conferring of, upon the dead, ii. 550-552

Midsummer customs, i. 56 sq.

Milk, prohibition of boiling, i. 197; offered to strangers, i. 590 sq.; abstinence from, ii. 325 sq.; after a death, ii. 301

Miracles, ii. 590 sq.

Modesty, ii. 144 sq.

Monkeys, the feeling of revenge in, i. 37 sq.; self-regarding pride in, i. 39, ii. 138; sympathetic resentment in, i. 112; credited with a conscience, i. 249; adoption of young among, ii. 189; abstinence from eating, ii. 328 sq.; aversion to killing, ii. 329, 490, 513. See Apes

Monks, sexual intercourse forbidden to, ii. 409, 412; addicted to homosexual practices, ii. 462, 467

Monogamy, ii. 192, 387-392

Monotheism, intolerance of, ii. 644-647, 649, 650, 652; its tendency to attribute the most exalted qualities to the deity, ii. 734

Moon, abstinence from work in connection with changes in the, ii. 284-287, 747; fasting in connection with changes in the, ii. 296, 297. 309-313

---- gods, appealed to in oaths, ii. 121, 122, 699; regarded as judges, ii. 699, 703 sq.

Moral approval, the nature of, i. 21, 93-107; the origin of, i. 108-111, 117-123, 129 sq.; moral concepts springing from, i. 145-154; only indirectly expressed in custom, i. 160; hardly at all expressed in law, i. 166 sq.; the resemblance between the phenomena which give rise to gratitude and those which call forth, i. 318 sq.

"---- axioms," i. 12

---- concepts, based on moral emotions, ch. i. (i. 4-20); analysis of the principal, ch. vi (i. 131-157); among non-European peoples, i. 131-133

---- disapproval, the nature of, i. 21-93, 100-107; the origin of, i. {853}108-129; moral concepts springing from, i. 134-145; expressed in customs and laws, ch. vii. (i. 158-201); the resemblance between the phenomena which give rise to non-moral resentment and those which call forth, i. 315-319

Moral emotions, the moral concepts based on, chs. i. (i. 4-20), vi. (i. 131-157); the nature of the, chs. ii.-iv. (i. 21-107); the origin of the, ch. v. (i. 108-130); expressed in customs and laws, ch. vii. (i. 158-201); the resemblance between the phenomena which give rise to non-moral retributive emotions and those which call forth, i. 314-319; not determined by the cognition of free-will, i. 321-326

---- evolution, general characteristics of, ii. 743-746

---- ideals, i. 153 sq.

---- judgments, the emotional origin of, ch. i. (i. 4-20); the assumed objectivity of, i. 6-20, 104 sq.; the general nature of the subjects of, chs. viii.-xii. (i. 202-313); why conduct and character form the subjects of, i. 314-320; the relation between free-will and, i. 320-326; the innate character the proper subject of, i. 326

---- law, the authoritativeness attributed to the, i. 14-17

"---- reason," i. 7 sq.

"---- truth," i. 17 sq.

Morbid impulses, injuries committed under the influence of, i. 298 sq.

Morning gift, ii. 385

Mos, i. 119, 122

Mother, children's affection for their, i. 534-538, 618, 659, ii. 194, 748; descent traced through the, i. 597 598, 655 sq., ii. 44-46, 54, 202, 203, 205, 206, 211, 220; committing suicide on the death of her only son, ii. 244 n. ^3. See Maternal affection, duties, rights; Parents

Motives, ch. xi. (i. 283-302); i. 207-209, 316, 318

Mourners, delicate state of, ii. 283, 307; considered polluted, ii. 306, 307, 545; purificatory ceremonies of, ii. 354

Mourning costume, ii. 524, 545, 547

---- customs, ii. 283, 284, 298-308, 520, 524, 526, 528, 541, 542, 544-548; forbidden in the case of suicide, ii. 247. See Death

Murder, manslaughter distinguished from, i. 294-298, ii. 633. See Homicide

Mutilation, as a punishment, i. 192, 195. 311, 312, 513, 518-523. ii. 8, 9, 12, 13, 74, 84, 123 n. ^1, 143 n. ^1, 447, 449 sq.

Mutton, abstinence from, ii. 322, 327

Mutual aid, i. 538-569

NAMES, certain superstitions relating to, i. 460, ii. 369; social influence of, ii. 203 sq.; their influence on exogamy, ii. 369, 748; prohibition of mentioning dead persons', ii. 524, 545-547, 550; of mentioning supernatural beings', ii. 640-643

National conceit, ii. 170-174

Nationalism, i. 367-369, ii. 184, 185, 224 sq.

Nationality, the feeling of, ii. 183-185. See Patriotism

Negative commandments, why more prominent than positive commandments, i. 303

Negligence, i. 210, 211, 303-305

Negro slavery, i. 428, 429, 516-518, 683, 704-714, ii. 32 sq.

Negroes, not accepted as witnesses against white persons, i. 429; antipathy to, i. 713 sq.; injuries inflicted upon white persons by, i. 713 sq.; white persons prohibited from marrying, i. 714

New, fear of anything, i. 462 sq.

Nuns, sexual intercourse forbidden to, ii. 409, 412

OATHS, materialistic conception of, i. 58-61, 233 sq.; the taking of, forbidden to the high priest, i. 58, ii. 638; to priestesses, ii. 638; contained in ordeals, i. 505 sq., ii. 687-690; taken upon arms, i. 506, ii. 119-121; upon tent-poles, i. 588 n. ^5; in connection with theft, ii. 62, 63, 66, 68; sworn by the eldest sister, i. 606; on the life of the king, ii. 637; supernatural beings appealed to in, ii. 67, 68, 120-123, 686-690, 699, 731 sq.; prohibition of taking, ii. 99, 124; not considered binding if contrary to the good of the Church, ii. 100; methods of adding supernatural {854} energy to, ii. 118-122; taken upon blood, ii. 118-121, 621, 622, 687-689; blood-covenants accompanied by, ii. 208, 209, 567. See Perjury

Obedience, to parents, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628); to husbands, ch. xxvi. (i. 629-669); slaves, to their masters, ch. xxvii (i. 670-716); to rulers, i. 194-196; to gods, i. 194-198, ii. 659 sq.; to the dead, ii. 519, 520, 541

Occupation, acquisition of property by, ii. 35-39, 51, 52, 54 sq.

Occupations of life, divided between the sexes, i. 633-637, ii. 271

Offerings to the dead, ii. 302, 303, 400-404, 517, 518, 524, 539, 547, 550, 692, 700, 701, 704, 708; connection between almsgiving and, ii. 550-552

---- to gods. See Sacrifice

Offspring, man's desire for, i. 533, ii. 388, 391, 400-404, 423, 440; the future state of persons who have died without, ii. 400-404

Old age, criminal responsibility affected by, i. 266 sq.; the future state of persons who have died of, i. 390, ii. 235, 238 n. ^3, 698

---- persons, killing or abandoning of, i. 386-390, 606, 607, 612, 620; eaten by their relatives, i. 390, ii. 554, 568 sq.; kind treatment of, i. 540, 546, 625 sq., ii. 672; respect for, i. 603-605, 614, 615, 619-621, ii. 194, 675; supposed to be versed in magic, i. 619 sq.; curses and blessings of, i. 622, 626; suicide committed by, ii. 232, 235, 236, 247 sq.

Omissions, i. 210-212, 303-305, 317

Opera supererogativa, i. 86, 98 sq. See Merits

Opinions, moral judgments relating to, i. 215 sq.

Ordeals, ii. 686-690, 732; duels as, i. 504-507

"Ought," analysis of the concept, i. 134-137

Outlawry, i. 46, 47, 172, 173, 311

Owls, prohibition of eating, ii. 321

Oxen, prohibition of killing ploughing, ii. 330, 331, 493, 494, 504

PARDON, the right of, as a prerogative of the Crown, i. 192, 196, 226

Parental affection. See Maternal, Paternal affection

Parents, their authority over their children, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628); curses or blessings of, i. 58, 538, 621-627, ii. 703, 715, 716 n. ^2, 732; children punished if convicted of a design to kill their, i. 245; killing their infant children, i. 378, 394-413, 633, ii. 562, 752 sq.; children killing their, i. 383-386, 522, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2, 749; children killing or abandoning their aged, i. 386-390, 606, 607, 612, 620; eaten by their children, i. 390, ii. 554, 568 sq.; killing their grown up children, i. 393 sq., ii. 256 sq. n. ^2; exposing their new-born children, i. 406-412, 689; children sacrificed to save the lives of their, i. 455, 456, 459-461; sacrificing their children, i. 455-461; eating their children, i. 458 sq., ii. 554, 555. 562, 568 sq.; daughters committing suicide on the death of their, i. 473; inflicting corporal punishment upon their children, i. 513-515, 607, 610; children using violence against their, i. 513, 624 sq., ii. 677; their duty of taking care of their children, i. 526-533; children's duty of taking care of their, i. 533-538; children's respect for their, i. 534-538, 600, 601, 607-613, 616-628, ii. 194; children's affection for their, i. 534-538, 618, 659, ii. 194, 748; religion emphasising children's duties to their, i. 536, 537, 608, 610, 612, 613, 616, 617, 620-627, ii. 711, 714, 715, 716 n. ^2, 717, 732; children cursing their, i. 564; selling their children as slaves, i. 599, 607, 609, 611, 612, 615, 675, 681, 682, 684, 685, 689, 691 sq.; children telling a falsehood in the presence of their, ii. 96; children addressing abusive language to their, ii. 142; their duties to their children, ii. 166, 748; children's duties to their, ii. 166, 748; committing suicide on the death of their children, ii. 232, 244 n. ^3; fasting after the death of their children, ii. 298-300; children fasting after the death of their, ii. 298-301; children punished after death for {855} inflicting injuries upon their, ii. 715. See Maternal, Paternal affection

Parricide. See Parents

Parricidium, i. 384 sq.

Pastoral life, supposed connection between the custom of ultimogeniture and a, ii. 48 n. ^4, 56 n. ^5

---- peoples, vegetable food provided by the women among, i. 634, ii. 273; the position of women among, i. 660 sq.; slavery among, i. 672, 673, 681; social aggregates of, ii. 201; their sympathy for their domestic animals, ii. 506

Passing-bell, the, ii. 524, 544

Passover, the, i. 459, 470, ii. 296

Paternal affection, i. 401, 402, 405, 529-533. ii. 187-190, 193, 748; its influence on the duration of marriage, ii. 397

Patriotism, ii. 167-185

Peace, perpetual, i. 334, 337, 367

---- Societies, i. 369

Peculium, of slaves, i. 690, 697, ii. 31-33; of sons, ii. 28; of women, ii. 29

Pederasty. See Homosexual love

Penance, ii. 356-361, 363, 708, 735; fasting as a form of, ii. 246, 315-318, 406

Perjury, considered contagious, i. 58-61; considered sinful though committed unconsciously, i. 229, 231, 233 sq.; punished by custom or law, i. 505, 521 sq., ii. 123 n. ^1; regarded as an offence against the deity, i. 507, ii. 122, 122 sq. n. ^10; no civil punishment affixed to, ii. 123 n. ^1; believed to incur divine punishment, ii. 123 n. ^1, 684, 686, 714; to cause misery after death, ii. 715 sq.

Phratry, the, ii. 217, 218, 222 sq.

Pigeons, prohibition of killing, ii. 490; eating of, ii. 737

Pilgrimage, ii. 314, 416, 538 n. ^2, 725

"Pious fraud," ii. 100, 104, 112

Pocket-picking, i. 187, 243

Politeness, i. 160, ii. 146-152

Pollution, of sin, i. 52-57, 61-65, 70, 71, 85, 86, 407, ii. 256 n. ^2, 654 sq.; of curses, i. 57-61, 70, 233, 234, 624 sq., ii. 583, 584, 703; of blood, i. 225, 232, 233, 375-382, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2, 262, 714; of women, i. 663-666, ii. 538 n. ^2; of self-inflicted death, ii. 257 n. ^5 262; of death, ii. 283, 302-307, 416, 536-539, 544 sq.; of natural death, ii. 416, 609; of food, ii. 294-296; of wine, ii. 344 sq.; sexual, ii. 414-420, 752; caused by partaking of human flesh, ii. 538, 575 sq.; holiness very susceptible to, i. 58, 380-382, 625, ii. 294-296, 322, 344, 345. 352, 353, 415-420, 608-610, 638, 643, 752

Polyandry, ii. 387, 395

Polygyny, ii. 387-392, 395; connection between illegitimate children's right to inheritance and, ii. 57; a cause of homosexual practices, ii. 466

Polytheism, tolerance of, ii. 647-652

Pork, abstinence from, ii. 321, 322, 326-330, 335

Positive commandments, i. 303-305, 310

Possession, acquisition of property by continued, ii. 39-41, 52

Potatoes, abstinence from, after a death, ii. 301

Poverty, estimation of, i. 556, ii. 280 sq.; a cause of uncleanliness, ii. 351; monogamy associated with, ii. 392

Prayer, ii. 653-659; for remission of sin, i. 49, 54, 55, 228 sq., ii. 654, 655. 72, 707; purification preparatory to, i. 380 sq., ii. 352, 353, 358, 359, 415. 416, 418 sq.; development of a curse or a blessing into a, i. 564 sq., ii. 66-68, 120-123, 658, 686-690, 731; almsgiving connected with, i. 567 sq.; forbidden to women, i. 664, 667 n. ^1; used as greeting, ii. 150; fasting an appendage to, ii. 316 sq.; magic efficacy ascribed to, ii. 353, 418, 419, 656-659, 706, 712; continence a preparation for, ii. 417-419

Preparation, acts of, i. 243-246

Prescription, ii. 40, 41, 52 sq.

Pride, condemnation of, ii. 144 sq. See Self-regarding pride

Priestesses, forbidden to marry or to have intercourse with men, ii. 406-408, 412-414, 420; continence compulsory on women who wish to become, ii. 419; prostitution of, ii. 443 sq.; asylums, ii. 637 sq.; prohibited from taking an oath, ii. 638

Priests, forbidden to take an oath, i. 58, ii. 638; to engage in warfare, {856} i. 348, 381; to shed human blood, i. 381 sq.; to take part in a capital charge, i. 381, 382, 493; to engage in hunting, ii. 506; the law of torture relating to, i. 523 sq.; curses of, i. 563; enslaving of children of incontinent, i. 700; certain foods forbidden to, or rejected by, ii. 322, 329, 333, 338; forbidden to marry and to have intercourse with women, ii. 405-409, 412, 414, 418-421; eunuch, ii. 408, 414, 488 n. ^6; forbidden to contract a second marriage, ii. 412; to marry widows, ii. 412, 420; to marry harlots or divorced wives, ii. 420; taboos imposed upon, ii. 417 sq.; continence compulsory on persons who wish to become, ii. 419; temporary continence compulsory on, ii. 419 sq.; the punishment of unchastity in the daughters of, ii. 420; represented as corrupters of domestic virtue, ii. 432; their celibacy a cause of homosexual practices, ii. 467; boys kept as, ii. 473; used as temple prostitutes, ii. 473, 488; cannibalism of, ii. 563, 574; their residences asylums, ii. 630, 634, 637; opposing sorcery, ii. 652; regarded as manifestations of gods, ii. 657, 709; encouraging the belief in the magic efficacy of prayer, ii. 658 sq. See Benefit of Clergy; cf. Magicians

Primogeniture, ii. 45, 46, 48, 55 sq.

Promiscuity, the theory of, ii. 396

Promises. See Good faith

Property, the right of, ch. xxviii. sq. (ii. 1-71); forfeiture of, as a punishment, i. 47, ii. 254; acquired by a successful duel, i. 498, 503, ii. 9; of wives, i. 632, 637-641, 643, 645, 661, ii. 28-31, 41; of women, i. 661, ii. 28-30, 41; of slaves, i. 677, 684, 688, cf. Peculium of slaves; of the dead, i. 399, ii. 44, 518, 539 sq., see Inheritance, Wills; of supernatural beings, ii. 626 sq.; supernatural beings as guardians of, ii. 59-69, 669, 675-677, 679, 684, 686, 699, 700, 705, 714, 717, 732

Prostitution, i. 608, ii. 428-431, 437, 439-446; religious, ii. 443-446, 488; of men, ii. 459-462, 463, 476, 478, 488

Provocation, i. 290-298, 311, 316 sq.

Prudence, i. 560, 581, 715, ii. 52, 59, 114, 124, 176, 185, 265-268, 331, 332, 334. 335, 342, 428, 497, 539, 547, 548, 660

Puberty, girls at, ii. 307 sq.

Public approval, the prototype of moral approval, i. 9, 122, 129

---- disapproval, the prototype of moral disapproval, i. 9, 119-122

Pulse, abstinence from, ii. 322, cf. ii. 430 sq.

Punishment, inflicted on others than the culprit, i. 43-48, 69 sq.; restricted to the culprit, i. 70-72; essentially an expression of the moral indignation of the society which inflicts it, i. 79, 89-91, 169, 185, 198-201; theories as to the proper object of, i. 79-91; regarded as a means of eliminating the criminal, i. 80-82; as a deterrent, i. 80-84, 88-91; as a means of reforming the criminal, i. 80-91; defined, i. 82, 169 sq.; the limited efficiency of, as a deterrent, i. 90 n. ^1; a source of moral disapproval, i. 115; the relation between indemnification and, i. 168 sq.; among savages, i. 170-177; transition from revenge to, i. 180-185; the opinion that determent actually is or has been the chief object of, i. 185-200; the increasing severity of, i. 186-198; inflicted on criminals in public, i. 191 sq.; of unintentional injuries, i. 219, 221-226, 231, 232, 235-240; of attempts to commit crimes, i. 241-247, 374; of acts of preparation, i. 243-246; of bare intentions, i. 245; inflicted on animals, i. 253-260, 264, 308; on inanimate things, i. 261-264, 308; of injuries committed by children, i. 265-269; by old persons, i. 266 sq.; by lunatics, i. 271-277, 298 sq.; by idiots, i. 273; in drunkenness, i. 279-282; inflicted upon the offending member, i. 311, 312, 513, 518, 519, 521 sq., ii. 9, 13, 74, 84, 123 n. ^1, 143 n. ^1; from a deterministic point of view, i. 320 sq.; influenced by rank, i. 430-433, 491, 518, 519, 524, ii. 19, 20, 58, 142, 143, 448-450; corporal, i. 520-525; suicide committed out of fear of, ii. 233; redeems the sufferer from {857} punishment in a future existence, ii. 360; inflicted on gods, ii. 610. For various kinds of punishment see Banishment, Cannibalism (as a punishment), Emasculation, Mutilation, Outlawry, Property (forfeiture of), Serfdom (as a punishment), Shame (putting offenders to), Slavery (as a punishment)

Punishment in a future existence. See Future life

---- of death, i. 491-496; among savages, i. 188-190, 195-197; as a kind of human sacrifice, i. 440, 471 sq.; suicide as an alternative to, ii. 243; inflicted for a variety of crimes, i. 44-46, 171, 172, 174, 177, 186-197, 253, 254, 287, 306, 311, 312, 331, 383-386, 404, 407, 409, 412, 416, 419, 420, 423, 424, 429-433, 439, 440, 491, 492, 495, 496, 508, 509, 513, 516, 518, 685, ii. 4, 5, 7-9, 12-15, 19, 96, 140-142, 256 n. ^2, 276, 331, 366-368, 378, 406-408, 420, 424-426, 428, 429, 431, 442, 447-450, 453, 474, 475 n. ^10, 477-482, 497, 558, 640, 647, 650-652

Purificatory ceremonies, i. 53-57, 69, 233, 375-377, 379-381, 625, ii. 256 sq. n. ^2, 257 n. ^5, 294, 295, 328, 352-354, 358, 359, 415, 416, 472 n. ^7, 476, 538, 545, 726

RAIN, human sacrifices offered for the purpose of producing, i. 449-451; certain other methods of procuring, ii. 315, 361

Rama[d.]ân, the fast of, i. 271, ii. 313-315, 725

Rank, influencing customs or laws relating to homicide, i. 34, 35, 178, 430-433, 491; to capital punishment, i. 491; to bodily injuries, i. 518, 519, 524; to corporal punishment, i. 522-524; to torture, i. 523 sq.; to theft, ii. 19, 20, 58; to sincerity, ii. 103; to insults, i. 142 sq.; to politeness, i. 151 sq.; to suicide, i. 243; to marriage, ii. 379, 380, 384; to chastity, ii. 428, 433 sq.; to rape, ii. 437 sq.; to adultery, ii. 448-450; to the disposal of the dead, ii. 527, 549; to cannibalism, ii. 573 sq.; supposed to influence the efficacy of curses, i. 626 sq.; to influence men's state in the other world, ii. 698

Rape, i. 187, 188, 311, 521, ii. 437, 438, 476, 633, 679; self-defence in the case of, i. 290

Rashness, i. 211, 305-310

Ravens, fear of killing, ii. 491

Reason, the theory according to which moral judgments are ultimately based on, i. 7-17

Reception ceremonies, i. 590-592

Reflection, its influence on moral estimates, i. 10, 11, 70, 216, 237, 247, 248, 251, 283, 303, 310, 312-314, ii. 111, 136, 267, 268, 274, 283, 405, 512-514, 580, 581, 744-746; on non-moral resentment, i. 315, 316, 318

Reflex action, i. 22

Regalia, regarded as wonder-working talismans, ii. 608 n. ^4, 753 sq.

Regret, the similarity between remorse and, i. 123 sq.

Religio, the meaning of the word, ii. 584-586

Religion, belief in supernatural being an essential element in, ch. xlvii., (ii. 582-601); duties to gods inculcated by, ch. xlviii. sq. (ii. 602-662); relations between morality and, chs. l.-lii. (ii. 663-737), 745 sq.; custom stronger than, i. 164; enjoins abstinence from work on certain days, i. 187, ii. 284-289, 718; the severity of punishment increased by, i. 193-198; enjoins fasting, i. 271, ii. 246, 292-298, 308-318, 358, 406, 725; a source of war, i. 339, 349-352, 359; attitude of, towards war, i. 339, 341, 342, 345-366, 369 sq., ii. 711; condemns homicide, i. 345, 346, 378-380, 382, ii. 669, 672, 676, 684, 686, 700, 705, 714, 716 n. ^2, 717, 732; condemns the killing or exposure of infants, i. 407, 411 sq.; condemns feticide, i. 414-417, ii. 705; attitude of, towards slavery, i. 424, 426, 516, 683-689, 693-700, 711-713, ii. 711; gives support to capital punishment, i. 496; influences the right to bodily integrity, i. 520; inculcates filial duties, i. 536, 537, 608, 610, 612, 613, 616, 617, 620-627, ii. 711, 714, 715, 716 n. ^2, 717, 732; enjoins charity, i. 549-558, 561-569, ii. 669, 672, 699, 705, 711, 717, 718, 725, 726, 732; enjoins hospitality, i. 578-580, ii. 669, 711, 714, {858} 715, 717, 718, 726, 732; influences the treatment of old persons, i. 620 sq., ii. 672, 675; influences the position of women, i. 663; regards women as unclean, i. 663-666; attitude of, towards serfdom, i. 703 sq.; the right of property sanctioned by, ii. 59-69, 669, 675-677, 679, 684, 686, 699, 700, 705, 714, 717, 732; the regard for truth and good faith sanctioned by, ii. 96, 114-124, 128, 129, 669, 672, 675-677, 684, 686, 699, 700, 703-705, 707. 711, 714, 717, 726, 732; leads to "pious fraud," ii. 100, 104, 112; condemns pride, ii. 144 sq., its relation to national feeling and patriotism, ii. 174, 175, 178 sq.; as a social tie, ii. 209-213, 225-227, 725; the opinions as regards suicide influenced by, ii. 234, 236, 237, 242-254, 260, 261, 263; the moral ideas relating to self-regarding conduct influenced by, ii. 267 sq.; commends agriculture, ii. 275; attitude of, towards labour, ii. 275, 280-289, 675, 705, 747; commends poverty, ii. 280-282; requires ceremonial cleanliness, ii. 294, 295, 352-354, 358, 359, 415-420, 700 n. ^5, 705, 718, 726; enjoins pilgrimage, ii. 314, 725; imposes various restrictions in diet, ii. 322-338, 671; encourages drunkenness, ii. 339; enjoins sobriety or total abstinence from intoxicating liquors, ii. 341-345; a cause of uncleanliness, ii. 354-356; leads to various forms of asceticism, ii. 355-363; stigmatises incest, ii. 375, 376, 671; enjoins various forms of endogamy, ii. 378-382; a bar to inter-marriage, ii. 380-382; enjoins monogamy, ii. 392; prohibits divorce, ii. 397; enjoins marriage, ii. 399-404; enjoins celibacy or continence, ii. 406-421; regards marriage as impure, ii. 410-412; condemns second marriages, ii. 412, 451; enjoins sexual cleanliness, ii. 415-420, 736, 752; requires chastity of unmarried women, i. 49, ii. 427 sq.; condemns extra-matrimonial intercourse, ii. 431-433, 439, 675; prostitution connected with, ii. 443-446, 488; condemns adultery, ii. 447, 448, 450, 453-455, 675, 676, 684, 686, 700, 717; homosexual practices connected with, ii. 458, 459, 472-474, 484, 486-489, 752; stigmatised by, ii. 475, 476, 479-482, 485-489, 705; inculcates regard for the lower animals, ii. 497-504, 705; looks down upon the lower animals, ii. 505-508; cannibalism in connection with, ii. 562 sq.; definitions of, ii. 584, 753; born of fear, ii. 612-614; hope an element in every, ii. 614-616; attitude of, towards magic, ii. 649, 650, 652, 753; the communal character of, ii. 661. See Asylums, Atheism, Baptism, Blasphemy, Blood (effusion of, as a religious rite), Eucharist, Flagellation, Future life, Future state, "God," Goddesses, Gods, Guardian spirits, Hell, Heresy, Holiness, Human sacrifice, Intolerance, Monotheism, Oaths, Ordeals, Penance, Perjury, Pilgrimage, Polytheism, Prayer, Priestesses, Priests, Purificatory ceremonies, Sacred places, Sacrifice, Sacrilege, Saints, Self-mortification, Self-mutilation (as a religious rite), Sin, Supreme beings, Tolerance, Totem, Totemism, Unbelief

Remorse, i. 105-107, 123-125, 136; absence of, in criminals, i. 90 n. ^1; a cause of suicide, i. 106, ii. 233

Repentance, i. 105-107, 123-125; as a ground for forgiveness, i. 84-88, 99, 311, 318, ii. 360, 735; adequate, deemed impossible in the case of blasphemy, ii. 640

Repetition of an offence, i. 186, 187, 189, 257, 306, 311, 312, 318, ii. 7

Reptiles, aversion to eating, ii. 324

Requisitions, military, ii. 27

Resentment, i. 21-93; towards animals, i. 26, 27, 251-260, 264, 308, 316; towards inanimate things, i. 26, 27, 260-264, 315; the phenomena which call forth, i. 315-318

----, sympathetic, i. 111-116, 169, 179, 180, 185, 372, 373, 429, 433, 524, 533, 559, 560, 659, 714 sq., ii. 52, 109, 112, 113, 140, 166, 176, 185, 262, 266, 496, 528, 580, 661; in animals, i. 112, ii. 52

Rest, ii. 283-289, 747

Retaliation, moral valuation of, i. 73-79. See Punishment, Revenge

Retributive emotions, i. 21-99; the phenomena which call forth, i. {859} 314-319; not determined by the cognition of free-will, i. 322, 326

Retributive kindly emotion, i. 21, 93-99; in animals, i. 94; the phenomena which call forth, i. 318 sq.; sympathetic, i. 117, 129

Revenge, taken upon animals, i. 26, 27, 251-253, 255, 256, 258; upon inanimate things, i. 26, 27, 260-263; regarded as a duty, i. 73 sq.; condemned, i. 73-79; demanded by public opinion, i. 176 sq.; regulated by the rule of equivalence, i. 177-180; succeeded by punishment, i. 180-185; believed to be taken by animals upon men, i. 252, 258, ii. 491, 497. 500, 502, 504, 603; taken upon offenders caught flagrante delicto, i. 290-294, ii. 8, 13, 17, 429, 447; not to be taken upon a guest, i. 576, 587 sq.; taken for injuries inflicted upon guests, i. 577 sq.; suicide as a method of taking, ii. 233, 234, 242-245; supposed to be taken by the dead upon the living, ii. 530, 531, 548, 576; taken by the living upon the dead, ii. 692 sq.; supposed to be taken by ghosts upon other ghosts, ii. 693 sq. See Blood-revenge

----, the feeling of, its nature and origin, i. 21-42; in animals, i. 37 sq.; appeased by repentance, i. 87, 88, 318; attributed to gods, i. 194, 198, 438-440, 471 sq., ii. 660, 661, 667, 668, 702, 714; to the souls of murdered persons, i. 232, 372, 375, 376, 378 379, 406, 476, 481 sq., ii. 559 sq.; to the dead, ii. 530, 531, 534; a motive for committing suicide, ii. 233, 234, 242-245; a motive for cannibalism, ii. 557-559

Rewards, vicarious, i. 96-99; a source of moral approval, i. 117; public, i. 166 sq.; in a future existence, see Future life

Rice, abstinence from, after a death, ii. 301

"Right," analysis of the concept, i. 137-139; the relation between "good" and, i. 146 sq.

"Rights," analysis of the concept, i. 139-141

Rivers, human sacrifices offered to, i. 452-454

Robbery, i. 187-189, ii. 1-27, 57-69; distinguished from theft, ii. 16, 17, 58; of tombs, ii. 518, 519, 540 sq.; of temples, ii. 627; refuge denied to persons guilty of, ii. 633. See Stealing

SABBATH, the Jewish, i. 187, ii. 286-289, 718, 747; originally a fast-day, ii. 310 sq.

Sacramental grace, considered necessary for salvation, ii. 719 sq.

Sacred places, polluted persons prohibited from entering, i. 58, ii. 294, 415 sq.; shedding of human blood prohibited in, i. 380, ii. 635; women excluded from, i. 664 sq.; sexual intercourse prohibited in, ii. 416, 752; fear of disturbing the peace in, ii. 635 sq. See Asylums

Sacrifice, ii. 611-626; transference of evil combined with a, i. 62-65; vicarious expiatory, i. 65-70, 438-440; purification preparatory to, i. 380, ii. 294, 352, 353, 358, 359, 415; connection between alms giving and, i. 565-569, ii. 550-552; as a means of transferring curses, i. 586 sq., ii. 618-624, 658; as a reception ceremony, i. 591, ii. 621; women prohibited from offering a, i. 664 sq.; fasting in connection with, ii. 294-298; fasting the survival of an expiatory, ii. 316-318; asceticism in some other instances the survival of an earlier, ii. 359; oaths taken in connection with a, ii. 621 sq.; connected with prayer, ii. 655 sq.; importance of, ii. 705, 707-712, 714, 716, 718. See Human sacrifice, Offerings to the dead

Sacrificial victims, magic virtue ascribed to, i. 63, 65, 69, 444-447, ii. 563, 625, 658; looked upon as guardian spirits, i. 464 sq.; as messengers, i. 465 sq., ii. 618; privilege granted to, i. 585 n. ^1; must be free from pollution, ii. 295, 296, 419

Sacrilege, punished with death, i. 188, 197, 439, 492; refuge denied to persons guilty of, ii. 633; if committed by foreigners, ii. 648

Sago, abstinence from, after a death, ii. 301

Saints, oaths taken at the shrines of, i. 59 sq., ii. 120; diseases cured by contact with, i. 63; lunatics regarded as, i. 270 sq.; curses pronounced by, i. 563, 622; l-[(]âr (implying {860} the transference of a conditional curse) made upon, i. 566, ii. 584, 585, 618, 619, 636, 638; robbed of their holiness, i. 586, ii. 608; compacts made at the shrines of, i. 587, ii. 623 sq.; old men regarded as, i. 619; looked upon as guardians of property, ii. 67 sq.; the saliva of, ii. 322; ceremonial cleanliness required of those who approach the shrines of, ii. 416, 418, 752; sexual intercourse with, ii. 444, 488; places of striking appearance associated with, ii. 589, 627; miracles performed by, ii. 590-592; gifts offered to, ii. 619; offerings to, participate in their sanctity, i. 445 sq., ii. 625; sacredness of the shrines of, ii. 627, 628, 635; lunacy attributed to the resentment of, ii. 628; their shrines asylums, ii. 628, 635, 636, 638; persons attached to the shrines of, ii. 635; unconcerned about the worldly morality of their devotees, ii. 669; invoked by thieves, ii. 669

Salmon, abstinence from eating, after a death, ii. 306 sq.

Salutations, i. 590-592, ii. 146, 147, 149-151

Sanctuary, the right of. See Asylums

Scalping, i. 333, 375, ii. 525

Scape-goats, i. 53-55, 61-65

Scientific research, ii. 133-136

Scourging, as a religious rite, ii. 294, 357-359

Sea, human sacrifices offered to the, i. 452-454

Self-approval, i. 105-107, 123

-----defence, i. 288-290; lying in, ii. 92, 94, 97-101, 103-106, 112

-----mortification, ii. 281, 315-318, 355-363, 421

-----mutilation, after a death, i. 26, 27, 476, ii. 524, 528, 544, 545, 547; as a religious rite, i. 470 sq., ii. 357

Self-regarding duties and virtues, ii. 265-268

-----regarding pride, respect for other men's, ch. xxxii. (ii. 137-152); in men, i. 23, 24, 30, 38-40, 94, 179, 315, ii. 110, 137-140; a cause of suicide, ii. 73, 139, 140, 231-233, 243; in animals, i. 39, ii. 137 sq.; attributed to the dead, ii. 519; to gods, ii. 639-655

-----reproach, i. 105-107, 123-125

-----respect, ii. 265

Self-sacrifice, i. 213, 214, 565, ii. 154, 265, 359

Seniority, respect for, i. 605, 606, 614, 615, 619, 626, ii. 703

Sensuous pleasures, condemnation of, ii. 291, 292, 361-363

Sentiment, i. 110 n. ^3

Separation, judicial, ii. 397, 455

Serfdom, i. 701-704; as a punishment, ii. 19; strangers reduced to, ii. 24; shipwrecked persons reduced to, ii. 25

Serfs, bodily injuries inflicted upon, i. 524 n. ^3; proprietary rights or in capacities of, i. 701 sq., ii. 32; intermarriage between freewomen and, ii. 379

Serpents, worship of, ii. 590. See Snakes

Seven, the number, ii. 311 sq.

Seventh day, the, ii. 286-289. See Sabbath

Sexual impulse, the, in males, i. 657, ii. 435 sq.; in females, i. 657 sq., ii. 435; connection between religious feelings and, ii. 375 n. ^3; regarded as sinful in the unmarried, ii. 432; associated with affection, ii. 439 sq., see Conjugal affection

---- intercourse, between man and beast, i. 253 sq., ii. 409, 749; manslayers temporarily prohibited from, i. 375, 377; abstinence from, with women who are pregnant or who suckle a child, i. 399, ii. 388, 391; with strangers, i. 575, 593, ii. 444-446; with holy persons, i. 593 n. ^1, ii. 444, 488; abstained from after a death, ii. 306; abstained from during the month of Rama[d.]ân, ii. 313; abstinence from, a means of propitiating or pleasing the deity, ii. 358, 420 sq.; as a magical or religious rite, ii. 395, 443-446, 488; between a man and a married woman, ii. 397, 447-455; between a married man and a woman, ii. 397, 451-455; forbidden to priests and priestesses, ii. 405-409, 412-414, 418-421; to monks and nuns, ii. 409, 412; considered impure, ii. 410, 411, 414-420, 752; regarded as a consequence of Adam's sin, ii. 411; supposed to have been originally free from all carnal desire, ii. 411 n. ^4; supposed to take place between gods and women, ii. 412 sq.; the future state of persons {861} who have refrained from, ii. 414 sq.; danger attributed to, ii. 415, 446; prohibited in sacred places, ii. 416, 752; abstained from in connection with religious observances, ii. 416-420, 736, 752; admission into priesthood preceded by abstinence from, ii. 419; regarded as a transmitter of hereditary sin, ii. 421; between unmarried persons, ii. 422-446, 675, 747; between persons of the same sex, ch. xliii. (ii. 456-489), 752 sq.; between animals of the same sex, ii. 456, 466, 475 n. ^2; temporarily forbidden to men who have eaten human flesh, ii. 575. See Adultery, Incest, Jus primæ noctis, Sodomy

Sexual inversion, congenital, ii. 465-467; acquired, ii. 467-470

Shame, putting offenders to, i. 170; a cause of suicide, ii. 233

Shaving, as a means of purification, ii. 294 sq.

Sheep, stealing of, i. 187 sq., ii. 14; abstinence from killing, for food, ii. 330. See Mutton

Shipwrecked persons, sacrifice of, i. 467; treatment of, ii. 25, 37 sq.

Sick persons, killing or abandoning of, i. 391-393, ii. 542; kind treatment of, i. 546-548; suicide committed by, ii. 232; unkindness to, punished by the supreme being, ii. 672. See Disease

Sin, collective responsibility in the case of, i. 48-57, 61-72; prayers for remission of, i. 49, 54, 55, 228 sq., ii. 654, 655, 702, 707; materialistic conception and transference of, i. 52-57, 61-65, 70, 71, 85, 86, 407, ii. 256 n. ^2, 654 sq.; committed accidentally or unknowingly, i. 227-231, 233-235; the sense of, ii. 361; sexual intercourse regarded as a transmitter of hereditary, ii. 421

Sister, the elder, respect for, i. 605, 606, 614; swearing by, i. 606; curses of, i. 626, ii. 703

Slander, ii. 96, 98, 140-142, 700

Slavery, ch. xxvii. (i. 670-716); as a punishment for crime, i. 45, 46, 494, 518, 675, 676, 681, 682, 685, 688-691, ii. 7, 8, 12, 13, 74; a cause of suicide, ii. 233, 235, 241; produces contempt for manual labour, ii. 272, 273, 278

Slaves, sacrificed to gods, i. 66, 452, 455, 456, 467 sq.; to dead persons, i. 472, 474, 486, ii. 234; killing of, i. 378, 421-429, 696, 707; of free men by, i. 429, 430, 491 n. ^5; refuge denied to, i. 427; granted to, i. 690, 692, 696, ii. 637; not allowed as witnesses, i. 429, 697; bodily injuries inflicted upon, i. 515-518, 524, 677, 707; upon freemen by, i. 516-518; corporal punishment inflicted upon, i. 522-524; children sold as, by their parents, i. 599, 607, 609, 611, 612, 615, 675, 681, 682, 684, 685, 689, 691 sq.; curses of, i. 716; proprietary rights and incapacities of, i. 677, 684, 688, 690, 697, ii. 28, 31-33, 57; rules of inheritance relating to, i. 679, ii. 46 sq.; addicted to falsehood, ii. 113, 129 sq.; insults offered by, ii. 142 sq.; offered to, ii. 143; marriages between free men and, ii. 379; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 527, 549; eaten, ii. 559 567; cursed by their masters, ii. 703

Snakes, abstinence from eating, ii. 324. See Serpents

Social affection, i. 94, 95, 112-114, 559, ii. 197, 198, 226-228

---- aggregates, the evolution of, ii. 198-226

Socialism, ii. 69-71

Society, the birthplace of the moral consciousness, i. 117-123

Sodomy, i. 188, ii. 460, 465 n. ^2, 474-476, 479-483, 486-489. See Homosexual love

Solstices, fasting at, ii. 309 sq. See Midsummer customs

Soma, ii. 591, 592, 707 sq.

Son, sacrificed to save the life of his father, i. 455 sq.; the parents' or father's consent required for the marriage of the, i. 607-609, 613, 615-618, 624 sq.; mother committing suicide on the death of her only, ii. 244 n. ^3; allowed to eat only certain foods after the death of his father, ii. 301 sq. See Children, Firstborn, Primogeniture, Ultimogeniture

Sorrow expressions of, ii. 283, 308, 316, 528

Soul, the immateriality of the, ii. 595 sq. See Annihilation, Dead, Future Life, Future state, Transmigration

{862} Spiders, prohibition of killing white, ii. 490

Spirits, evil. See Evil spirits

"Spiritual relationship," a bar to inter-marriage, ii. 369, 377

Spitting, superstitions relating to, i. 588, 594, ii. 65, 151, 209, 322, 546 n. ^2, 636 sq.

State, the, as a social unit, ii. 221-226; its influence on the smaller units of which it was composed, i. 627 sq., ii. 222 sq.; suicide regarded as a wrong against, ii. 248, 253, 259, 263; celibacy regarded as a wrong against, ii. 404

Stealing, ii. 1-27, 57-69; of horses**, cattle, or sheep, i. 187 sq., ii. 14; from houses, i. 187 sq., ii. 15, 16, 58, see Burglary; of letters, i. 188; of food, i. 286, 287, 676, ii. 14, 15, 57 sq.; at night, i. 289, ii. 16, 58; self-defence in the case of, i. 289 sq.; persons who are caught, i. 293. 294. 311, ii. 8, 13, 17-19, 58; punishment inflicted on the offending member in the case of, i. 311, 312, 521 n. ^1, ii. 9, 13; from relatives, ii. 53 sq. n. ^4; punished by supernatural beings, ii. 59-69, 669, 675-677, 679, 684, 686, 699, 700, 705, 714, 717, 732; curses pronounced to punish or prevent, ii. 62-69, 703; adultery regarded as a form of, ii. 449 sq.; from tombs, ii. 518, 519, 540 sq.; of property belonging to gods, ii. 626 sq.

Stimulants, religious veneration of, ii. 591

Storks, abstinence from killing, ii. 490

Strangers, protected by the chief or king, i. 180, 181, 338; killing of, i. 331-334, 337-34, 370, 371, 373; sacrificed, i. 467 sq.; infliction of bodily injuries upon, i. 519; kindness to, i. 556-558, see Hospitality; blessings of, i. 581-584, ii. 446; regarded as semi-supernatural beings, i. 583 sq.; supposed to be versed in magic, i. 584; the evil eye of, i. 584, 591-593; curses of, i. 584-594, ii. 715, 732; reception of, i. 590-592, ii. 621; gifts of, i. 593 sq.; sexual intercourse with, i. 593, ii. 444-446; enslaving of, i. 674, 675, 689, 690, 691, 714 sq.; respect for the proprietary rights of, ii. 2, 11, 59; robbery committed upon, ii. 20-25, 58 sq.; reduced to serfdom, ii. 24; rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 49; deceiving of, ii. 87, 88, 90, 94, 97, 112, 126-129; politeness to, ii. 152; duties to, ii. 166; despised, ii. 171-174, 532; disregard of their interests, ii. 176; antipathy to, ii. 227; marriages with, ii. 378, 381 sq.; treatment of departed, ii. 525, 548 sq.; eaten, ii. 554; sacrilege committed by, ii. 648. See Hospitality

Stratagems, ii. 106, 107, 112

Suicide, ch. xxxv. (**ii. 229-264); punished with forfeiture of property, i. 47, ii. 254; prompted by remorse, i. 106, ii. 233; of daughters, i. 473; of widows, i. 473 sq., ii. 232, 234, 235, 241, 242, 244, 247; caused by wounded pride, ii. 73, 139, 140, 231-233, 243; the future state of persons who have committed, ii. 235-239, 242-244, 246, 253, 262, 694, 710

Sun, fasting in connection with the, ii. 309, 310, 312 sq.

---- gods, appealed to in oaths, ii. 121 sq.; regarded as judges, ii. 698, 699, 703

Sunday, as a day of rest, ii. 288 sq.; a cause of drunkenness, ii. 343 sq.

Supernatural, the, ii. 582-584

---- beings, the belief in, ch. xlvii. (ii. 582-601); disease supposed to be caused by, i. 392 sq., ii. 593; curses personified and elevated to the rank of, i. 60, 379, 482, 561, 585, 623, 624, 626, ii. 68, 116, 715, 732; fear of mentioning the names of, ii. 640-642; distinction between offences committed against gods and offences against other, ii. 661 sq. See Animals (killing of sacred), Erinyes, Evil spirits, Goddesses, Gods, Guardian spirits, Jinn, Saints, Supreme beings, Totem

"Superobligatory, the," i. 151-154

Suppliants. See Asylums, L-[(]âr

Supreme beings in savage beliefs, ii. 670-687

Swallows, prohibition of killing, ii. 490

Sympathetic feelings springing from association, i. 109 sq.

---- magic. See Magic, sympathetic

{863} Sympathetic resentment. See Resentment, sympathetic

---- retributive kindly emotion. See Retributive kindly emotion, sympathetic

Sympathy, i. 109-111; for animals, ii. 494-506, 510-514. See Affection, Altruistic sentiment

TABOO, i. 197, 233, ii. 63-66, 583, 584, 675

Talion. See Equivalence, the rule of

Testation, ii. 43, 53. See Wills

Thank offerings, i. 441, ii. 615 sq.

Theft. See Stealing

Thrift, ii. 265

Throne, the Royal, regarded as holy, ii. 608, 754

Thunder, religious veneration of, ii. 587, 592

Tigers, abstinence from the flesh of, ii. 321; their fear of strange phenomena, ii. 583

Toads, fear of killing, ii. 491

Tobacco, religious veneration of, ii. 591

Tolerance, religious, ii. 647-653

Tombs, theft or violation committed at, ii. 518, 519, 525, 540 sq.; places of refuge, ii. 630

Tomb-stones, ii. 544, 546

Tortoises, prohibition of eating, ii. 321

Torture, infliction of death by, i. 186-188, 190; judicial, i. 523 sq.

Totem, eating of the, i. 227, ii. 210, 211, 323, 324, 606; killing of the, ii. 210, 603, 604, 606; regardful treatment of the, ii. 490

Totemism, as a social tie, ii. 210-213; represented as the source of the prohibition of incest, ii. 376, 376 sq. n. ^7, 377 n. ^1, 747; believed to be instituted by the All-father, ii. 671

Tournaments, i. 354 sq.

Trade, moral valuation of, ii. 274, 276, 278-280, 282

Transference, of blessings, see Blessings; of curses, see Curses; of disease, see Disease; of evil, see Evil; of holiness, see Holiness; of the holiness temporarily seated in the ruling sovereign, ii. 607-610, 753 sq.; of magic virtue ascribed to sacrificial victims, i. 69, 444-447, ii. 563, 624 sq.; of magic virtue, by sexual intercourse, i. 593, ii. 444-446, 488; by eating or by contact, ii. 562-564, 605, 606, 625; of merits, see Merits; of qualities inherent in animals, men, or man-gods, by eating their flesh or drinking their blood, ii. 320, 333, 334, 560-564; of sin, see Sin; of the souls of divine kings, ii. 606, 607, 753 sq.; of virtue, see Virtue

Transmigration of human souls, into animals, ii. 324, 328, 338, 490, 496, 500, 504, 516, 517, 693, 709 sq.; into trees, ii. 516

Treason, punishment of, i. 45-48, 187-189, 492, ii. 558; judicial torture in cases of, i. 523

Trees, revenge taken upon, i. 26, 27, 260-263; transmigration of human souls into, ii. 516

Tribe, the, ii. 202, 217-219, 222 sq.

Tribes, associations of, ii. 220 sq.

Tribunals among savages, i. 173-175

Truce of God, the, i. 356 sq.

Truth and good faith, regard for, ch. xxx. sq. (ii. 72-136); gods as guardians of, ii. 96, 114-123, 128, 129, 669, 672, 675-677, 684, 686, 699, 700, 703-705, 707, 711, 714, 717, 726, 732

Turtle, abstinence from eating, ii. 319, 333

Twilight, prohibition of eating, travelling, and sleeping during, ii. 309

Twins, i. 395, 396, 408, 460

ULTIMOGENITURE, ii. 46, 48, 56

Unbelief, ii. 644-646, 705; as a subject of moral judgment, i. 216; considered a legitimate cause of war, i. 339, 349-352, 359; the right to bodily integrity influenced by, i. 520; a cause of uncharitableness, i. 557, 696; a ground for enslaving captives, i. 686, 695; the valuation of theft or robbery influenced by, ii. 20, 25; does not justify breach of faith, ii. 93; a legitimate ground for deceiving an enemy, ii. 94; a bar to intermarriage, ii. 380 sq.; homosexual practices associated with, ii. 486-489; the right to life influenced by, ii. 705; the future state influenced by, ii. 719-721, 725-727

Unchastity, ch. xlii. sq. (ii. 422-489); of unmarried persons, supposed to incur divine punishment, i. 49, ii. 675; forbidden to priests and priestesses, ii. 406-409, 412-414, 419 sq.; to monks and nuns, ii. {864} 409, 412; to persons who wish to become priests or priestesses, ii. 419; supposed to injure the harvest, ii. 417, 747; celibacy a cause of, ii. 432

Uncle, children in the power of their maternal, i. 597 sq.

Uncleanliness, ii. 348-356

Uncleanness. See Pollution

Unearned income, ii. 70 sq.

Unintentional injuries, i. 217-240, 315, 316, 319, ii. 714; benefits, i. 318 sq.

Unnatural love. See Homosexual love

Usucapio, ii. 40

VAMPIRES, i. 476, ii. 564, 709

Veal, considered unwholesome, ii. 332

Vegetarianism, ii. 335-338, 499

Venison, abstinence from, ii. 320

Veracity. See Truth, regard for

Vermin, revenge taken upon, i. 26, 27, 251; regard for, ii. 492, 493, 498 sq.

Vestal virgins, i. 439, 453, ii. 407, 408, 637 sq.

"Vice," analysis of the concept, i. 134

Village communities, ii. 200-202, 213, 214, 216, 219

Violent death, the future state of persons who have died a, i. 481 sq., ii. 237-239, 242

Virginity, required of priestesses, ii. 406-408; religious veneration of, 409-411, 429; not required of a bride, ii. 422-424, 440, 441, 444-446; required of unmarried women, ii. 424-442; the preference given by men to, ii. 434-437, 440

"Virtue," analysis of the concept, i. 147-150

Virtue, transference of, i. 98

Vivisection, ii. 510, 512, 514

Volitions, as subjects of moral judgments, i. 202-210; as a source of non-moral retributive emotions, i. 314-319

---- absence of, a subject of moral judgment, i. 210-214; a cause of non-moral retributive emotions, i. 317-319

WAGER of battle, i. 306, 504-507

War, i. 331-382; provoked by a homicide, i. 33; humanity towards enemies in, i. 335, 336, 342-344, 369, 370, 558, ii. 711; private, i. 355-358; human sacrifices offered in, i. 440, 441, 447 n. ^5, 449; ending in a duel, i. 497 sq.; destruction of property in, ii. 25 sq.; seizure of property in, ii. 26, 27, 38, 58 sq.; deceit in, ii. 94, 106-108, 112; the future state of persons who have fallen in, ii. 237, 521, 694, 697, 704, 708; burial of persons who have fallen in, ii. 239; considered a nobler occupation than labour, ii. 272-274, 278, 282; fasting after a reverse in, ii. 315; a cause of polygyny, ii. 389, 391; prevalence of homosexual love among peoples addicted to, ii. 467, 479, 752

War, prisoners of, treatment of, i. 336, 343, 422; sacrificed to gods, i. 339, 441, 450, 452, 467; to the dead, i. 472, 474; bodily injuries inflicted upon, i. 519 sq.; enslaved, i. 674, 675, 677, 681-686, 688-691, 695, 701, 715; ransom accepted for, i. 701; eaten, ii. 554, 561, 578

Water, human sacrifices offered for the purpose of getting drinking, i. 451 sq.

White men, atrocities committed by, among coloured peoples, i. 370 sq.; coloured persons not accepted as witnesses against, i. 429; their demoralising influence upon savages, i. 548, 549, 571 sq., ii. 2, 126-129, 424, 735; injuries inflicted by coloured persons upon, i. 713 sq.; prohibited from marrying coloured persons, i. 714; looked down upon by savages, ii. 171 sq.; taken for spirits, ii. 590

Widowers, suicide committed by, ii. 232, 233, 235 sq.; fasting of, ii. 299-301; second marriages of, prohibited or condemned, ii. 412, 451

Widows, sacrifice of, i. 472-474, ii. 450 sq.; suicide committed by, i. 473 sq., ii. 232, 234, 235, 241, 242, 244, 247; prohibited from remarrying, i. 475, ii. 450 sq.; rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 45, 47 55 sq.; fasting of, ii. 298-301; priests forbidden to marry, ii. 412, 420

Will, the, as the subject of moral judgment, ch. ix. (i. 217-248), i. 214-216, 310-314; as a cause of non-moral retributive emotions, i. 315, 319. See Free-will

{865} Wills, ii. 43, 53; the sacredness attached to, ii. 519, 541, 552

Wine, superstitious notions concerning, i. 278, 281, ii. 344, 345, 591 sq.; prohibition of, ii. 341-345; after a death, ii. 302, 305; in honour of the sun, ii. 312

Wishes, deliberate, as subjects of moral judgments, i. 206 sq.

Witchcraft, ii. 649-652; punishment of, i. 45, 189, 190, 492, ii. 650-652. See Magic

Witches, lunatics burned as, i. 273; old women regarded as, i. 620; addicted to homosexual practices, ii. 484 n. ^1; the custom of swimming, ii. 690. See Witchcraft

Wives, the subjection of, ch. xxvi. (i. 629-669); punished if convicted of a design to kill their husbands, i. 245; crimes committed by, in the presence of their husbands, i. 284; husbands killing their, i. 418, 419, 631; killing their husbands, i. 419 sq.; acquired by duels, i. 499, 500, 503; husbands inflicting bodily injuries upon their, i. 514-516, 631; the duty of husbands to protect and support their, i. 526-529, 532 sq.; lending of, to guests or others, i. 575, 593, ii. 752; cursed by their husbands, i. 626; sold as slaves by their husbands, i. 675, 684; proprietary rights and incapacities of, i. 632, 637-641, 643, 645, 661, ii. 28-31, 41, 57; belief in a mysterious bond of sympathy between husbands and, ii. 205; suicide committed by husbands on the death of their, ii. 232, 233, 235 sq.; fasting of husbands on the death of their, ii. 299-301; adultery committed by, ii. 397, 447-455; of gods, ii. 412-414; priests forbidden to marry divorced, ii. 420; exchange of, ii. 752; eaten by their husbands, ii. 555. See Conjugal affection, Marriage, Widows

Wizards. See Magicians

Wolf's flesh, abstinence from, ii. 320, 322, 327

Women, the position of, ch. xxvi. (i. 629-669); rape committed upon, i. 187, 188, 290, 311, 521, ii. 437, 438, 633, 679; punished by being burned alive, i. 188; treatment of, in war, i. 335, 336, 342, 343, 369 sq.; killing of, i. 418-421; not allowed to be beaten, i. 514; the evil eye of, i. 592; regarded as versed in magic, especially when old, i. 620, 666-668; the occupations of, i. 633-637; the sexual impulse of, i. 657 sq., ii. 435; ideas held about, i. 661-669, ii. 192; the future state of, i. 662 sq., ii. 673; of such as have died in child-birth, ii. 238 n. ^3, 678; menstruous, i. 663; ii. 307 n. ^2, 538 n. ^2, 586; regarded as unclean, i. 663-666, ii. 538 n. ^2; forbidden to enter sacred places, i. 664, 665, **ii. 752; to offer sacrifices, i. 664 sq.; to pray, i. 664, 667 n. ^1; curses of, i. 668; serving as asylums, i. 668 sq.; proprietary rights and incapacities of, i. 661, ii. 28-30, 41, 57; rules of inheritance relating to, ii. 44, 45, 47, 48, 55; addicted to falsehood, ii. 76, 113; to suicide, ii. 232; politeness to, ii. 152; certain foods forbidden to, ii. 320 sq.; celibacy and continence of religious, ii. 406-414, 419-421; married to gods, ii. 412-414; chastity of unmarried, i. 49, ii. 422-446, 675; coyness of, ii. 435 sq.; homosexual practices between, ii. 464, 465, 752; the lack of accessible women a cause of homosexual practices between men, ii. 466 sq.; their mental inferiority a cause of pederasty, ii. 470 sq.; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 526, 527, 549; forbidden to eat human flesh, ii. 554, 555 n., 573, 575; refuge denied to kidnappers of, ii. 633. See Daughters, Mother, Wives, Widows

Work. See Labour

World, renunciation of the, ii. 361-363

"Wrong," analysis of the concept, i. 134

YOUNG PERSONS, certain foods forbidden to, ii. 319 sq. See Children, young

THE END

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD., BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas

BY EDWARD WESTERMARCK, PH.D., LL.D.

SOME PRESS OPINIONS ON VOL. I.

ATHENÆUM.--

"The first attempt to deal with the subject of the evolution of human morality in the concrete on a scale at all corresponding to its complexity and sheer bulk. . . . This book remains an achievement unsurpassed in its own kind, a perpetual monument of the courage, the versatility, and the amazing industry of its author."

R. R. Marett, in MIND.--

"Dr. Westermarck's work fills me with profound admiration. . . . There is no book in any language that deals concretely with the evolution of morality on so grand a scale or in so authoritative a way."

Havelock Ellis, in THE JOURNAL OF MENTAL SCIENCE.--

"Throughout marked by an extraordinary degree of erudition which never becomes pedantic, by an invariably fair-minded and well-balanced attitude towards difficult problems, and by a power of broad and lucid presentation which recalls Buckle."

Q. C. Wheeler, in REVUE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL.--

"Une des contributions les plus importantes à la sociologie qui aient été produites pendant les dernières années. . . . Cet ouvrage aura pour effet de rendre presque impossible toute étude scientifique de la morale sur les anciennes bases."

Franz Oppenheimer, in DAS BLAUBUCH.--

"Ein neues Buch von Edward Westermarck bedeutet ein soziologisches Ereignis. Westermarck, das heisst: profundestes ethnographisches Wissen, meisterhaft beherrscht durch ordnenden Verstand und durchleuchtet von schürfster Kritik und spürkräftigster Psychologie. Wie seine 'Geschichte der Ehe' ein standard work der Gesellschaftslehre bleiben wird, als dasjenige Buch, das zum erstenmal eines der schwierigsten Gebiete des menschlichen Zusammenlebens auf brietester Grundlage schilderte und erklärte, so wird auch dieses zweite mächtige Werk, dessen erster Band uns jetzt vorliegt, auf lange Zeit hinaus zu den Grundsteinen der werdenden Wissenschaft von Menschen gehören."

PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW.--

"Altogether it is perhaps safe to say that the work is the most important contribution to ethical literature within recent years."

W. R. Sorley, in THE BOOKMAN.--

"Dr. Westermarck is the only writer who can claim to have systematically examined the whole of the evidence, and to have produced a comprehensive treatise on the development of men's ideas of good and evil. . . . He is to be congratulated on having produced a standard work on a subject of first-rate importance. It is distinguished alike by breadth of view and mastery of detail, by skilful marshalling of evidence and by sound judgment."

NATURE.--

"The readers of his 'History of Human Marriage'--all of them his debtors--were doubtless prepared for the vast array of footnotes, the excellent way in which long series of facts are arranged, the clearness of the style, the sanity and reasonableness of a work which certainly was needed to keep ethical theory abreast of anthropological research, and which will add greatly to its author's reputation. . . . The account of the moral emotions, the treatment of punishment (in which subtle arguments are offered against determent as a sufficient guiding principle), the discussion of the various distinctions suggested by terms like act, agent, motive, intention, the detailed examination of the facts advanced by such authorities as Lord Avebury, Dr. J. G. Frazer, Dr. Steinmetz, are all excellent."

NORTHERN WHIG.--

"For learning and research the book is simply a marvel. . . . It will be an authoritative book for many a day on the subjects with which it deals."

L. T. Hobhouse, in TRIBUNE.--

"It has remained for Dr. Westermarck, a Finn writing in English, to give to the English-speaking world the first comprehensive and systematic account of the genesis of moral ideas on the basis of a detailed survey of the customs of mankind. . . . It is not too much to predict that it will mark the beginning of a new era in the study of general sociology."

GUARDIAN.--

"This work, by the author of 'The History of Human Marriage,' will undoubtedly take its place, and that a foremost place, amongst the standard works on the subject of ethics. . . . The width and depth of his learning will be recognised by every reader, and will be utilised by many generations of students."

DAILY NEWS.--

"A perfect graveyard of the hasty generalisations of his predecessors."

CAMBRIDGE REVIEW.--

"The purpose of the present work is to arrange and examine all the available evidence regarding the nature of men's moral judgments and the kind of objects which they approve or condemn. No one could be found more competent than Dr. Westermarck to carry this great undertaking to a successful issue."

EXPOSITORY TIMES.--

"One of the greatest contributions of recent years to the study of Comparative Religion."

S. Alexander, in THE SPEAKER.--

"Dr. Westermarck's book is without doubt of the first importance, whether it be regarded as a philosophical treatise on ethics or as a history of moral institutions. Neither of these descriptions singly does justice to it, for its merit lies in its blending of the analytical with the historical method, so that the long history which begins in the second half of this volume and is to be completed in the next volume, constitutes a continuous verification of his main ethical thesis that moral disapprovals und approvals arise from and express social indignation and social gratitude. . . . I conclude by expressing my unqualified admiration of Dr. Westermarck's work, which is worthy of the years of labour he has bestowed upon it. Besides its scientific importance it is recommended to readers by the unfailing interest and lucidity of its manner."

UNIVERSITY REVIEW.--

"Dr. Westermarck belongs to no accepted school of moralists. He endorses neither the humanist nor the religious views of society. He is neither a utilitarian nor an intuitionalist. He is both an anthropologist and a historian; he is also a sociologist and a traveller. In neglected lands where he might escape from European prejudices he has lived and studied the problems of the human heart and mind, accumulating at first hand a mass of material which throws much light on the origin and development of peculiar customs and beliefs. This, added to a remark able erudition, a scientific temper, a felicity and abundance of illustration, and a clear and vigorous style, gives us a contribution to ethics, psychology, and sociology which is undoubtedly of the first rank, and, in our opinion, the most comprehensive and luminous work which has yet been written on the subject."

GLOBE.--

"Both by the clarity and the philosophical insight of its arguments, and the wide range of its investigations and illustrative details, it will claim securely to rank among those epoch-marking works which define the steady progress of mankind in the study and understanding of its sociological developments."

PALL MALL GAZETTE.--

"The fuller consideration of Dr. Westermarck's book as a philosophic treatise must wait; meanwhile we can only congratulate him and the Duchy, of which he is so conspicuous an ornament, on the production of a book that is really epoch-marking."

SCOTSMAN.--

"One of its prime characteristics is the skill with which it traces out the historical connection between moral opinions and magic and religious beliefs."

YORKSHIRE POST.--

"In Dr. Westermarck's hands a subject which might be impossibly abstruse becomes almost as attractive as a romance. . . . In pure philosophy he is to some extent a pioneer, and will have the noble satisfaction of the pioneer in arousing doubt, interest, and admiration."

* * * * *

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.

* * * * *

Transcriber's Note

This text combines the two separate volumes of Westermarck's book into one file.

Footnotes have been renumbered sequentially through each chapter and placed below the paragraph in which they occur.

Conventions for transcription of foreign languages, etc.

Page numbers

Page numbers are preserved in the text, and are placed inside curly brackets with a space on each side, even if that means breaking some other PG transcription guideline. Pages without a printed number (such as initial pages of chapters) are left unmarked, even though the table of contents etc. may refer to those particular pages.

Greek alphabet

Greek expressions are transliterated in normal PG style (upsilon always as "u"), except that accents are marked thus, with symbols following the Greek letter: acute / grave \ circumflex ^

Breathings are marked thus, with symbols following the Greek letter: rough ( smooth )

Other Non-English alphabetic symbols

The oe-ligature is written .

Again, other non-standard symbols not in the basic ASCII range are marked as usual in PG: the transcription is placed in square brackets; marks above the basic letter are symbolised with a character preceding the basic character, those beneath the letter with a character following the basic character: Acute accent (or a similar mark on consonants) is marked with ' Circumflex with ^ Macron (long mark) with = Breve above a vowel (short mark) with ) Inverted circumflex/breve below with v Dot with .

Westermarck uses some other unusual letters: this text uses "(" for the transcription left half ring for Arabic ayin and for something like a rough breathing above "w" in the name "E[(w]e".

Corrected text

Corrected text is marked with "**" preceding the correction (except for