The Early English Cotton Industry

CHAPTER I

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COTTON MANUFACTURE 1-29

I.--The development of the English cotton industry the classic example of the Industrial Revolution movement; its importance as an indication of what the transition from the domestic to the factory system of organisation involved, 1-2; cotton and cotton-cloth common articles of import before the sixteenth century; “cottons” a prominent Lancashire manufacture in the early sixteenth century; unsuccessful attempts to regulate the manufacture, 2-6; necessity for caution in accepting the view that cotton was not used in the manufacture of Lancashire cloths in the sixteenth century, 7-8.

II.--Authentic evidence of a considerable manufacture of cotton in Lancashire; petition of London merchants (1621); testimony of Lewis Roberts (1641); fustian manufacture probably introduced in second half of the sixteenth century, 8-12; extent of the manufacture indicated in petitions from Lancashire (1654); possible effect of Thirty Years’ War; Fuller’s account of Lancashire fustian manufacture (1662); Bolton the staple place for fustians in the seventeenth century, 13-16.

III.--Countries from which cotton-wool imported in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; cotton-yarn and fine cotton-fabrics imported by East India Company, 16; John Barkstead’s schemes (1691) for manufacture of calicoes and muslins and their failure, 16-19; opposition of silk and woollen trades to import of dyed or printed calicoes; resulting Act (1700) followed by import of plain calicoes which were printed and dyed in England; Act (1721) prohibits their wear or use; opposition to Act from manufacturers of cotton in Dorset, 19-21; increasing prominence of fustians rouses opposition; petitions from Lancashire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire result in “Manchester Act” (1736); use or wear of printed goods made of linen-warp and cotton-wool declared lawful; progress of cotton manufacture, 1730-1764, 22-24.

IV.--Development of Manchester trade, 1650-1750; distinction between smallware, check, and fustian branches; fustian especially regarded as the cotton manufacture; some goods made entirely of cotton in first half of eighteenth century but majority probably of mixed character; worsted and silk utilised and linen largely manufactured, 25-29.

CHAPTER II

THE ORGANISATION OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE 30-71

I.--Clothiers in the Northern cloth district; Martin Byrom of Manchester (1520); statute (1543) refers to Irish merchants and others who sell linen-yarn and wool on credit in Manchester; petition of Lancashire clothiers against restrictions on middlemen (1577), 30-31; wealthy men engaged in Lancashire cloth trade--e.g. the Tippings, Mosleys, Chethams; their charitable bequests; extent of their concerns, 32-34; Humphrey Chetham bought goods for London market; employed workpeople in spinning yarn and in weaving and finishing cloth; typical clothier of the domestic system, 35-36; small independent producers not typical workpeople in Manchester district in early eighteenth century; evidence of statutes; changes in organisation of fustian manufacture; testimony of Ogden and Guest, 36-39.

II.--Organisation of smallware trade; manufacturers, undertakers, journeymen, apprentices; changes in first half of eighteenth century; combination of workpeople; articles (1747-1753) aim at enforcing apprenticeship and limiting number of apprentices, 40-42; increasing price of food and consequent disturbances; smallware weavers attempt to raise wages; prosecution and submission at Lancaster Assizes (1760), 42-45; Lord Mansfield’s charge on combinations in Lancashire (1758); combination of check-weavers; dispute with employers and strike in Manchester area; the “document”; demand regulation of trade under statute 5 Eliz.; proposals for settlement of dispute by weavers and Mr. Percival; submission and prosecution at Lancaster Assizes (1759); Lord Mansfield’s comments on Statute of Apprentices; later history of smallware weavers’ combination; economic and social significance of the combinations; their relation to earlier associations and to modern trade unions, 45-55.

III.--Distribution of manufacturers and workpeople in Manchester area in first half of eighteenth century; connections maintained by “putting out” system, 56; trade in raw materials; cotton imported through London, Liverpool, Whitehaven, Lancaster; wool reached manufacturers through inland traders; linen yarn spun in England and Scotland, but Ireland and the Continent most important sources of supply; qualities of yarn, and goods in which used; cotton merchants and yarn merchants in Manchester; foreign trading-connections; Manchester goods exported to West Indies, Africa, Italy, Germany, North America, Russia, Asiatic Turkey, 57-60; inland trade carried on by travelling merchants with pack-horses; partly displaced from early eighteenth century by “riders-out” who solicited orders; goods forwarded by carriers; development of communications; importance of petty-chapmen; links between manufacturing centres and country districts; organisation of their trade and capital involved; economic development during century preceding great inventions in cotton industry, 60-66; tables relating to manufacturers, merchants, crofters, and carriers in Manchester area (1772), 67-71.

CHAPTER III

THE COMING OF MACHINERY: KAY TO ARKWRIGHT 72-91

I.--Modern cotton industry dates from great inventions; inventions relate especially to spinning and preparatory processes, but earliest successful efforts in weaving; “Dutch” loom introduced into Manchester district in early eighteenth century; John Kay invents “flying-shuttle” (1733); first used in woollen industry; other inventions of Kay; Robert Kay effects improvement in hand-loom (1760); more complicated loom introduced for figured goods; discrepancy between spinning and weaving, 72-74; types of spinning-wheel in use--“Jersey” wheel, “Brunswick” wheel; methods of cleaning and carding cotton; Lewis Paul’s patent for roller-spinning (1738); and for carding (1748); lack of success; carding-machine introduced into Lancashire (1760), 75-78; need for improved spinning-machine; Society of Arts offers reward for invention (1761); inventions of the “spinning-jenny” (patented 1770) and the “water-frame” (patented 1769); description of spinning process by the spinning-wheel, the jenny, and the water-frame; Arkwright erects factory at Cromford (1771) and takes out “carding” patent (1775), 79-81; attacks upon new machinery by workpeople; not fully explained by effects of its introduction, 82-83.

II.--Outbreak of Seven Years’ War ushers in century of unrest in England due mainly to political causes; unrest frequently broke out in riots; conditions in sixties and seventies of eighteenth century; efforts of Parliament to cope with rising food prices; agitation against trading middlemen; attack made upon jenny during period of industrial depression and high prices at close of Seven Years’ War; and upon Arkwright’s machinery when American War of Independence dominated the situation; workpeople state their case against machinery to Parliament; counter-petition by manufacturers; decision of Parliamentary Committee, 83-91.

CHAPTER IV

THE OPPOSITION TO THE PATENTS 92-112

Failure of attempts to obstruct use of Arkwright’s machinery; Act (1774) reduces duty and removes prohibition on printed calicoes, 92-93; patents of Hargreaves and Arkwright challenged by manufacturers; Hargreaves’ failure to uphold his patent; his claim to invention of jenny questioned by Guest; his later career, 92-97; Arkwright’s characteristics; his association with Jedediah Strutt; development of his concerns, 97-100; infringements of his patents; fails to secure verdict in law-suit (1781); Arkwright’s Case; requests Parliament to consolidate his patents and continue them until 1789; opposition of Manchester Committee of Trade; secures verdict in second law-suit (February, 1785); agitation in Manchester; application for new trial; Thomas Highs’ claim to invention of roller-spinning; Arkwright loses verdict in third trial (June, 1785); application for new trial refused (November, 1785); Arkwright’s achievements, 100-112.

CHAPTER V

THE MULE AND THE RISE OF A NEW COTTON MANUFACTURE 113-148

I.--The work of Samuel Crompton; begins efforts to produce improved yarn at Hall-i’-th’-Wood (1772); invents “mule” (1779); prices obtained for his yarn; consents to make machine public, 113-116; character of the mule and its method of spinning; probable reasons why patent not applied for; treatment of Crompton in 1780 and its effects; asserts unacquaintance with Arkwright’s rollers, 117-122.

II.--Mule at first worked by hand in cottages; improvements in the mule; the “Billy”; mule supersedes jenny in cotton spinning; and water-frame in finer counts, 122-124; application of water-power; attempts to invent “self-actor” mule; increase in size and appearance in town factories, 124-126; early fine cotton-spinners; immigration of Scotsmen; fine spinning and machine making combined; rise of specialised firms, 126-128; fine cotton fabrics made from mule-spun yarn; effect upon Eastern cotton industry; testimony of John Kennedy; markets for fine yarn in late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; transition in the English cotton-industry; import of cotton from United States, 126-132.

III.--Social effects of the transition; William Radcliffe’s account; examination of the view that combined agricultural and industrial occupations prevailed in country districts of Lancashire before the coming of factories; evidence from Manchester Mercury, Aikin, Parliamentary reports; Radcliffe’s account of the township of Mellor; 1801 census returns relating to Mellor; Gaskell’s account of the classes in country districts affected by the transition; yeomen and artisans; improvement in material position of artisans and elevation of lower class; many yeomen turned to industry and some achieved success as manufacturers; number engaged in Lancashire textile industry who combined agricultural and industrial occupations relatively small; similar conclusion regarding number of small independent producers, 132-144; improved position of weavers reacted upon other trades and attracted labour; the Napoleonic War; mid-eighteenth century conditions repeated and intensified; effects upon social and economic development; and upon the problem of industrial relationships, 144-148.

CHAPTER VI

CONCERNING THE AFFAIRS OF SAMUEL CROMPTON 149-165

Crompton takes up residence at Oldhams; begins spinning business at Bolton (1791); subscription (1802-1803) partial failure owing to outbreak of war; extends his business; difficulties of his position; attempts to arouse interest in his case, 149-153; application to Parliament decided upon; collects information concerning effect of the mule in England, Scotland, and Ireland (1811-1812); petition presented to Parliament and referred to Committee; period of distress and riots; delay in proceedings; grant of £5000; Crompton’s disappointment, 153-158; failure of business concerns; subscription raised for annuity (1824); second petition to Parliament; Crompton’s death (1827); memorials of Crompton; improvements in the mule; its position in the world’s cotton industry, 158-165.

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