Science in Short Chapters

Part 1

Transcriber’s Note: Boldface is indicated by =equals signs=, italics by underscores.

SCIENCE IN SHORT CHAPTERS.

BY W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS, F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

AUTHOR OF “The Fuel of the Sun,” “Through Norway with a Knapsack,” “A Simple Treatise on Heat,” etc.

NEW YORK: JOHN B. ALDEN, PUBLISHER. 1883.

PREFACE.

I am not aware that this reprint of some of my scattered notes and essays demands any apology.

The practice of making such collections and selections by the author himself has now become very general, and is much better done thus than by friends after his death.

Besides this, it supplies a growing want of these busy times, when so many of us are prevented by the struggles of business from sitting down to the consecutive systematic study of a formal treatise.

I have kept this demand steadily in view throughout, by selecting subjects which are likely to be interesting to all readers who are sufficiently intelligent to prefer sober fact to sensational fiction, but who, at the same time, do not profess to be scientific specialists.

In the writing of these papers my highest literary ambition has always been to combine clearness and simplicity with some attempt at philosophy.

W. M. W.

WILLESDEN, September, 1882.

CONTENTS.

PAGE The Fuel of the Sun 7

Dr. Siemens’ Theory of the Sun 38

Another World Down Here 41

The Origin of Lunar Volcanoes 50

Note on the Direct Effect of Sun-Spots on Terrestrial Climates 56

The Philosophy of the Radiometer and its Cosmical Revelations 59

On the Social Benefits of Paraffin 65

The Solidity of the Earth 72

A Contribution to the History of Electric Lighting 75

The Formation of Coal 88

The Solar Eclipse of 1871 93

Meteoric Astronomy 104

The “Great Ice Age” and the Origin of the “Till” 112

The Barometer and the Weather 140

Part 2

The Chemistry of Bog Reclamation 159

Aerial Exploration of the Arctic Regions 170

The Limits of our Coal Supply 189

“The Englishman’s Fireside” 213

“Baily’s Beads” 221

The Coloring of Green Tea 223

“Iron Filings” in Tea 227

Concert-Room Acoustics 231

Science and Spiritualism 237

Mathematical Fictions 251

World-Smashing 257

The Dying Trees in Kensington Gardens 261

The Oleaginous Products of Thames Mud: Where they Come from and Where they Go 266

Luminous Paint 269

The Origin and Probable Duration of Petroleum 273

The Origin of Soap 281

Oiling the Waves 285

On the so-called “Crater Necks” and “Volcanic Bombs” of Ireland 290

Travertine 296

The Action of Frost in Water-Pipes and on Building Materials 300

The Corrosion of Building Stones 308

Fire-Clay and Anthracite 312

Count Rumford’s Cooking-Stoves 320

The “Consumption of Smoke” 327

The Air of Stove-Heated Rooms 332

Ventilation by Open Fireplaces 337

Domestic Ventilation 341

Home Gardens for Smoky Towns 351

Part 3

Solids, Liquids, and Gases 367

Murchison and Babbage 386

Atmosphere versus Ether 389

A Neglected Disinfectant 392

Another Disinfectant 393

Ensilage 394

The Fracture of Comets 396

The Origin of Comets 398

SCIENCE IN SHORT CHAPTERS.

THE FUEL OF THE SUN.

I offer the following sketch of the main argument which is worked out more fully in the essay I published in January, 1870, under the above title, hoping that many who hesitate to plunge into a presumptuous speculative work of more than 200 octavo pages may read this article, and reflect upon the subject.

The book has been handled in a most courteous and indulgent spirit by all the reviewers who have noticed it, but none have ventured to grapple with the argument it contains, although every possible opportunity and provocation for doing so is designedly afforded. It all rests upon the question which is discussed in the first three chapters, viz., whether the atmosphere which surrounds our earth is limited or unlimited in extent? If my reasoning upon this fundamental question is refuted, all that follows necessarily falls to the ground. If I am right, all our standard treatises on pneumatics and meteorology, which repeat the arguments contained in Dr. Wollaston’s celebrated paper, must be remodeled. At the outset, I reprint that paper, and point out a very curious and monstrous fallacy which, for half a century, remained undetected, and had been continually repeated.

As the main point of issue between myself and Dr. Wollaston is merely a question of very simple arithmetic and geometry, nothing can be easier than to set me right if I am wrong; and, as the philosophical consequences depending upon this issue are of vast and fundamental importance, the question cannot be ignored by those who stand before the world as scientific authorities, without a practical abdication of their philosophical responsibilities. Any man who publishes an astronomical or meteorological treatise without discussing this question, which stands before him at the threshold of his subject, is unfit for the task he has undertaken, and unworthy of public confidence. This may appear a strong conclusion just now, but a few years will be sufficient to graft it firmly into the growth of scientific public opinion.

“The Fuel of the Sun” is simply an attempt to trace some of the consequences which must of necessity result from the existence of an universal atmosphere, and it differs from other attempts to explain the great solar mystery, by making no demands whatever upon the imagination, inventing nothing,—no outside meteors, no new forces or materials. It supposes nothing whatever to exist but the known facts of the laboratory—the familiar materials of the earth and its atmosphere. It is shown that these materials and the forces residing within them must of necessity produce a sun, and manifest eternally all the observed solar phenomena, provided only they are aggregated in the quantities which our own central luminary presents, and are surrounded by attendant planets, such as his. Nothing is assumed or taken for granted beyond the simple fundamental hypothesis that the laws of nature are uniform throughout the universe. The argument thus conducted leads us step by step to a natural and connected explanation of the following important phenomena:—

1. The sources of solar and stellar heat and light.

2. The means by which the present amount of solar heat and light must be maintained so long as the solar system continues in existence.

3. The origin of the general and particular phenomena of the sun-spots.

4. The cause of the varying splendor of the photosphere, including such details as the “faculæ,” “mottling,” “granulations,” etc., etc.

5. The forces which upheave the solar prominences.

6. The origin of the corona and zodiacal light.

7. The origin of the meteorites and the asteroids.

8. The meteorological phenomena of the planets.

9. The origin of the rings of Saturn.

10. The origin of the special structure of the nebulæ.

11. The source of terrestrial magnetism, and its connection with solar activity.

The first and second chapters are devoted to an examination of the limits of atmospheric expansibility. The experimental investigations of Dr. Andrews, Mr. Grove, Mr. Gassiot, and M. Geissler are cited to prove that the expansibility of the atmosphere is unlimited, and other cosmical evidence is adduced in support of this conclusion.

As this, which is really the foundation of the whole argument, is directly opposed to the views expressed by Dr. Wollaston, in his celebrated paper on “The Finite Extent of the Atmosphere,” published in 1822, and generally accepted as established science, this paper is reprinted in the second chapter, and carefully examined.

Dr. Wollaston says “that air has been rarefied so as to sustain 1-100th of an inch of barometrical pressure,” and further, that “beyond this limit we are left to conjectures founded on the supposed divisibility of matter; if this be infinite, so also must be the extent of our atmosphere.”

Part 4

I contend that our knowledge of the whole subject is fundamentally altered since these words were written. We are no longer “left to conjectures founded on the supposed divisibility of matter” to determine the possibility of further expansibility than that indicated by 1-100th of an inch of barometrical pressure, as we now have means of obtaining ten times, a hundred times, a thousand times, or even an infinitely greater rarefaction than Wollaston’s supposed limit, an apparently absolute vacuum being now obtainable; and although the transmission of electricity affords a means of testing the existence of atmospheric matter with a degree of delicacy of which Wollaston had no conception, we are still unable to detect any indication of any limit to its expansibility.

The most remarkable part of Dr. Wollaston’s paper is the reductio ad absurdum by which he seeks to finally demonstrate the finite extent of our atmosphere. He maintains, as I do, that if the elasticity of our atmosphere is unlimited, its extension must be commensurate with the universe, that every orb in space will, by gravitation, gather around itself an atmosphere proportionate to its gravitating power, and that, by taking the known quantity of the earth’s atmosphere as our unit, we may calculate the amount of atmosphere possessed by any heavenly body of which the mass is known. On this basis Dr. Wollaston calculates the atmosphere of the sun, and concludes that its extent will be so great as to visibly affect the apparent motions of Mercury and Venus, when their declination makes its nearest approach to that of the sun. No such disturbance being actually observable, he concludes that such an atmosphere as he has calculated cannot exist. In like manner he calculates the atmosphere of Jupiter, and finds it to be so great, that its refraction would be sufficient “to render the fourth satellite visible to us when behind the centre of the planet, and consequently to make it appear on both (or all) sides at the same time.”

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