On Molecular and Microscopic Science, Volume 1 (of 2)

PART I.. Atoms and Molecules of Matter.

ATOMS AND MOLECULES OF MATTER.

SECT. PAGE

I. ELEMENTARY CONSTITUTION OF MATTER 1

II. ON FORCE, AND THE RELATIONS BETWEEN FORCE AND 23 MATTER

III. ATOMIC THEORY, ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS OF MATTER, 93 UTILITY OF WASTE SUBSTANCES—COAL-TAR COLOURS, ETC.

IV. THE SOLAR SPECTRUM, SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, SPECTRA OF 129 GASES AND VOLATILIZED MATTER, INVERSION OF COLOURED LINES, CONSTITUTION OF SUN AND STARS

PART II.. Vegetable Organisms.

VEGETABLE ORGANISMS.

I. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE VEGETABLE WORLD 167

II. ALGÆ 179

III. FUNGI 260

IV. LICHENS 298

V. CHARACEÆ 312

VI. HEPATICÆ, OR LIVERWORTS 316

VII. MUSCI, OR MOSSES 323

VIII. FILICES, OR FERNS 335

IX. EQUISETACEÆ, OR HORSETAILS 367

X. MARSILEACEÆ, OR RHIZOSPERMÆ 371

XI. LYCOPODIACEÆ, OR CLUB MOSSES 373

XII. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANTS 378

XIII. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS, OR ENDOGENOUS PLANTS 383

XIV. DICOTYLEDONOUS, OR EXOGENOUS PLANTS 404

ILLUSTRATIONS

THE FIRST VOLUME.

(The Author is indebted to the works of Dr. Carpenter, Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Mr. Gosse, and Mr. Darwin, for the larger part of these Illustrations.)

FIG. PAGE

89. Eucyrtidium cranoides frontispiece

1. Form of stratified discharge in a vacuum tube 79

2. Form of stratified discharge in a vacuum tube, as 81 affected by an electro-magnet

3. Development of Ulva 171

4. Vertical section of the cuticle of Iris germanica 173

5. Longitudinal section of stem of Italian reed 176

6. Palmoglœa macrococca 182

7. Protococcus pluvialis 184

8. Volvox globator 189

9. Various species of Staurastrum 192

10. Economy of Closterium Lunula 193

11. Diatoma vulgare and Grammatophora serpentina 197

12. Biddulphia pulchella 198

13. Pleurosigma angulatum 199

14. Actinocyclus undulatus 200

15. Meridion circulare 201

16. Bacillaria paradoxa 203

17. Cell multiplication in Conferva glomerata 207

18. Zoospores 208

19. Threads of Rivularia nitida 215

20. Trichodesmium erythræum 216

21. Conjugation of Zygnema quininum 217

22. Ulva latissima 225

23. Polyides rotundus and Furcellaria fastigiata 229

24. Vertical sections of conceptacles of Gracilaria 230 armata, Grinnelia americana, and Corallina officinalis

25. Callithamnion corymbosum 232

26. Rhabdonia Coulteri, Sphærococcus coronopifolius, 236 Wrangelia penicillata, and Cruoria pellita

27. Dictyurus purpurascens 242

28. Polyzonia cuneifolia 243

29. Fruit of various species of Ectocarpus 245

30. Dictyota dichotoma 247

31. Vertical section of receptacle of Fucus 254 platycarpus

32. Various species of Pucciniæi 276

33. Puccinia Graminis 280

34. Various species of Mucedines 286

35. Torula Cerevisiæ, showing successive stages of 287 cell-multiplication

36. Various species of Sphæriacei 294

37. Various species of Lichens 299

38. Sporopodium Leprieurii, Coccocarpia smaragdina, 300 and Lecanora affinis

39. Paulia perforata, Calicium tympanellum, and 301 Graphis Leprevostei

40. Nitella flexilis 302

41. Antheridia of Chara fragilis 314

42. Further development of antheridia of Chara 315 fragilis

43. Marchantia polymorpha 317

44. Anatomy of frond of Marchantia polymorpha 318

45. Archegonia of Marchantia polymorpha 319

46. Elater and spores of Marchantia 319

47. Funaria hygrometrica 324

48. Polytrichum commune, group of antheridia 325

49. Polytrichum commune, development of spermatozoids 325

50. Microscopic structure of leaves of mosses 330

51. Development of spores of Pteris serrulata 336

52. Antheridium and spermatozoids of Pteris serrulata 338

53. Archegonium of Pteris serrulata 338

54. Section of footstalk of fern frond 341

55. Pinnule of Polypodium bearing sori 342

56. Sporangia of Polypodiaceous ferns 343

57. Pinnule of Lastrea Filix-mas with sori 346

58. Sorus and indusium of Polystichum or Aspidium 347

59. Pinna of Polystichum Lonchitis 348

60. Sorus and cup-shaped indusium of Deparia prolifera 350

61. Scolopendrium vulgare 351

62. Athyrium Filix-fœmina 353

63. Asplenium Ruta-muraria 353

64. Ceterach officinarum 355

65. Blechnum Spicant 357

66. Pteris aquilina 357

67. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris 359

68. Trichomanes radicans 361

69. Hymenophyllum tunbridgense 362

70. Equisetum giganteum 368

71. Pilularia minuta 371

72. Orchis mascula, side view of flower 389

73. Orchis mascula, front view of flower 390

74. Orchis mascula, pollinium 391

75. Orchis mascula, pollen grains 391

76. Orchis mascula, pollinia 392

77. Orchis pyramidalis, front view of flower 393

78. Orchis pyramidalis, side view of flower 394

79. Orchis pyramidalis, disc with one pollinium 395

80. Orchis pyramidalis, pollinia, attached to disc 395

81. Orchis pyramidalis, pollinia, with disc contracted 395

82. Orchis pyramidalis, pollinia, withdrawn 395

83. Epipactis palustris, side views of flower 397

84. Epipactis palustris, side view and dissection of 398 flower

85. Listera ovata, side view of flower 399

Errata.

Page 3, line 5 from bottom, insert the before earth 59, line 19, dele the 59, line 21, dele the 59, lines 20 and 22, for part read parts 100, In the Table of Atomic Weights, read Copper 32; Zinc 32·5; Rubidium 86; Cæsium 133 101, lines 10 and 33, for 32 read 32·5 104, line 12 from bottom, for 29 read 32

MOLECULAR AND MICROSCOPIC SCIENCE.

PART I.. Atoms and Molecules of Matter.

ATOMS AND MOLECULES OF MATTER.

SECTION I.

ELEMENTARY CONSTITUTION OF MATTER.

THE INVESTIGATIONS which have revealed the most refined and wonderful relations between light, heat, electricity, and highly elastic media; the relation of these powers to the particles of solid and liquid matter, new methods of analysis, and the microscopic examination of that marvellous creation, animal and vegetable, which is invisible to the unaided eye of man, have brought a new accession to the indefinitely small within the limits of modern science.

Wherever the astronomer has penetrated into the depths of space, luminous points are visible; and since light merely consists in the undulations of the ethereal medium, matter must exist in every part of the universe of which man is cognizant, for although the luminiferous ether is so attenuated that its very existence is almost an hypothesis, its atoms are not more inconceivably small than those of highly elastic ponderable matter on earth. Atoms are the ultimate constituents of homogeneous simple substances; molecules, or groups of heterogeneous atoms united in definite proportions, constitute such as are compound. High pressure steam is invisible as it issues from the boiler, yet each of its molecules contains two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The perfume of a flower is a compound invisible substance formed of molecules.

We know nothing of the forms either of atoms or of those groups of atoms which we call molecules; but we cannot suppose them otherwise than as excessively hard, since conceive them how we will, we are sure that an atom, whatever be its form or nature, is ever the same. It never wears, it never changes, though it may have formed part of thousands of bodies and entered into thousands of combinations, organic and inorganic; when set free by their dissolution, it is ready to enter into a new series; it is indestructible even by fire, the same now as when created. Nor has the quantity of matter in our terrestrial abode ever been increased or diminished; liable to perpetual change of place and combination, the amount remains the same: the bed of the seas may be changed to dry land, and the ocean may again cover the lofty mountains, but the absolute quantity of matter changes not.

All substances, whether solid, liquid, or aëriform, are supposed to consist of hard separate atoms or particles, and in conformity with that supposition to be surrounded by the ethereal medium, otherwise they could not transmit light and heat, which are merely vibrations of that medium. Even the hardest and most compact substances are capable of compression, and have been compressed to an enormous degree by the hydraulic press; but it probably transcends mechanical force to bring their atoms into contact: in fact, no known substance is impervious to both light and heat, however thin.

By far the greater number of terrestrial substances consist of heterogeneous atoms chemically combined into atomic systems or molecules; but there are sixty-four which have never yielded to chemical analysis, and are therefore believed to be respectively formed of only one kind of atoms. Thirty-five of these are metals found either pure or as ores, and sixteen are metals existing naturally in chemical combination with alkalies, alkaline earths, or earthy bases, that is as salts, from which they have been obtained by the analytical power of electricity or other means. The thirteen remaining simple substances are non-metallic: some are aëriform, some solid, one liquid.

The alkaline metals are sodium, potassium, lithium, cæsium, rubidium, and thallium. They are distinguished by their energetic affinities for, and the simplicity of their compounds with, non-metallic elements. They are never met with native, and are amongst the most difficult metals to reduce from their ores, and their spectra are remarkable for simplicity. Sodium and potassium—which have been such important agents in spectrum science—were reduced from their alkalies of soda and potash by Sir Humphry Davy by means of the voltaic battery, a discovery which led the way to the reduction of many of the others. Lithium is a white metal which burns brilliantly in air and oxygen; it swims in naphtha, and is the lightest solid body known. Cæsium is the most energetic of all metals in its chemical affinities.

The metals of the alkaline earths are barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium. They possess, like the preceding, energetic affinities for the non-metallic elements, and are reduced with difficulty from their ores. Barium is obtained from earth baryta: it is powerfully alkaline, and its salts are colourless and poisonous. Calcium is obtained from limestone, chalk, marble, and gypsum, which are amongst the most abundant constituents in the crust of the earth; it is a bright ductile metal of a bronze colour. Magnesium, which is a brilliant silver-white hard brittle metal, is obtained from magnesium limestone or dolomite. Although the ores of calcium and magnesium cover vast areas of the globe, the metals form a very small comparative proportion of them.

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