Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage

CHAPTER II. The General Organization of the Visceral

THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VISCERAL NERVES CONCERNED IN EMOTIONS

The outlying neurones--The three divisions of the outlying neurones--The extensive distribution of neurones of the “sympathetic” or thoracico-lumbar division and their arrangement for diffuse action--The arrangement of neurones of the cranial and sacral divisions for specific action--The cranial division a conserver of bodily resources--The sacral division a group of mechanisms for emptying--The sympathetic division antagonistic to both the cranial and the sacral--Neurones of the sympathetic division and adrenal secretion have the same action 22-39

CHAPTER III. Methods of Demonstrating Adrenal Secretion

METHODS OF DEMONSTRATING ADRENAL SECRETION AND ITS NERVOUS CONTROL

The evidence that splanchnic stimulation induces adrenal secretion--The question of adrenal secretion in emotional excitement--The method of securing blood from near the adrenal veins--The method of testing the blood for adrenin 40-51

CHAPTER IV. Adrenal Secretion in Strong Emotions

ADRENAL SECRETION IN STRONG EMOTIONS AND PAIN

The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased in emotional excitement--The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased by “painful” stimulation--Confirmation of our results by other observers 52-65

CHAPTER V. The Increase of Blood Sugar in Pain and

THE INCREASE OF BLOOD SUGAR IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

Glycosuria from pain--Emotional glycosuria--The rôle of the adrenal glands in emotional glycosuria 66-80

CHAPTER VI. Improved Contraction of Fatigued Muscle

IMPROVED CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE AFTER SPLANCHNIC STIMULATION OF THE ADRENAL GLAND

The nerve-muscle preparation--The splanchnic preparation--The effects of splanchnic stimulation on the contraction of fatigued muscle--The first rise in the muscle record--The prolonged rise in the muscle record--The two factors: arterial pressure and adrenal secretion 81-94

CHAPTER VII. The Effects on Contraction of Fatigued

THE EFFECTS ON CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE OF VARYING THE ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE

The effect of increasing arterial pressure--The effect of decreasing arterial pressure--An explanation of the effects of varying the arterial pressure--The value of increased arterial pressure in pain and strong emotion 95-109

CHAPTER VIII. The Specific Rôle of Adrenin in Counteracting

THE SPECIFIC RÔLE OF ADRENIN IN COUNTERACTING THE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE

Variations of the threshold stimulus as a measure of irritability--The method of determining the threshold stimulus--The lessening of neuro-muscular irritability by fatigue--The slow restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by rest--The quick restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by adrenin--The evidence that the restorative action of adrenin is specific--The point of action of adrenin in muscle 110-134

CHAPTER IX. The Hastening of the Coagulation of Blood

THE HASTENING OF THE COAGULATION OF BLOOD BY ADRENIN

The graphic method of measuring the coagulation time--The effects of subcutaneous injections of adrenin--The effects of intravenous injections--The hastening of coagulation by adrenin not a direct effect on the blood 135-160

CHAPTER X. The Hastening of Coagulation of Blood in

THE HASTENING OF COAGULATION OF BLOOD IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

Coagulation hastened by splanchnic stimulation--Coagulation not hastened by splanchnic stimulation if the adrenal glands are absent--Coagulation hastened by “painful” stimulation--Coagulation hastened in emotional excitement 161-183

CHAPTER XI. The Utility of the Bodily Changes in Pain

THE UTILITY OF THE BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION

The reflex nature of bodily responses in pain and the major emotions, and the useful character of reflexes--The utility of the increased blood sugar as a source of muscular energy--The utility of increased adrenin in the blood as an antidote to the effects of fatigue--The question whether adrenin normally secreted inhibits the use of sugar in the body--The vascular changes produced by adrenin favorable to supreme muscular exertion--The changes in respiratory function also favorable to great effort--The effects produced in asphyxia similar to those produced in pain and excitement--The utility of rapid coagulation in preventing loss of blood 184-214

CHAPTER XII. The Energizing Influence of Emotional Excitement

THE ENERGIZING INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL EXCITEMENT

“Reservoirs of power”--The excitements and energies of competitive sports--Frenzy and endurance in ceremonial and other dances--The fierce emotions and struggles of battle--The stimulating influence of witnesses and of music--The feeling of power 215-231

CHAPTER XIII. The Nature of Hunger

THE NATURE OF HUNGER

Appetite and hunger--The sensation of hunger--The theory that hunger is a general sensation--Weakness of the assumptions underlying the theory that hunger is a general sensation--Body need may exist without hunger--The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the quick onset and the periodicity of the sensation--The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the local reference--Hunger not due to emptiness of the stomach--Hunger not due to hydrochloric acid in the empty stomach--Hunger not due to turgescence of the gastric mucous membrane--Hunger the result of contractions--The “empty” stomach and intestines contract--Observations suggesting that contractions cause hunger--The concomitance of contractions and hunger in man 232-266

CHAPTER XIV. The Interrelations of Emotions

THE INTERRELATIONS OF EMOTIONS

Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the cranial divisions of the autonomic system--Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the sacral divisions of the autonomic system--The function of hunger--The similarity of visceral effects in different strong emotions and suggestions as to its psychological significance 267-284

CHAPTER XV. Alternative Satisfactions for the Fighting

ALTERNATIVE SATISFACTIONS FOR THE FIGHTING EMOTIONS

Support for the militarist estimate of the strength of the fighting emotions and instincts--Growing opposition to the fighting emotions and instincts as displayed in war--The desirability of preserving the martial virtues--Moral substitutes for warfare--Physical substitutes for warfare--The significance of international athletic competitions 285-301

A LIST OF PUBLISHED RESEARCHES FROM THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 302-303

INDEX 305

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page 1. Diagram of the more important distributions of the autonomic nervous system 25

2. Diagram of the arrangements for recording contractions of the intestinal muscle 49

3. Intestinal muscle beating in inactive blood 53

4. Alternate application of “excited” blood and “quiet” blood, from the same animal, to intestinal muscle initially beating in Ringer’s solution 55

5. The effect of prolonging the excitement 55

6. Failure of the cava blood to produce inhibition when excitement has occurred after removal of the adrenal glands 57

7. Effect of adding adrenin to formerly inactive blood 58

8. The effect of bubbling oxygen through active blood 59

9. Intestinal muscle beating in normal vena cava blood 62

10. The shielded electrodes used in stimulating the splanchnic nerves 87

11. Contraction of the tibialis anticus and stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves 89

12. Arterial blood pressure with membrane manometer, contractions of tibialis anticus, and splanchnic stimulation 91

13-17. Effect of varying arterial blood pressure upon muscular contraction over time 98-104

18. Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment 116

19. Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment 122

20. Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment 124

21. Effect of adrenin injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle 128

22. Effect of amyl nitrite injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle 128

23. Effect of adrenin injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle when denervated 131

24. Diagram of the graphic coagulometer 139

25. Record of five successive tests of coagulation 145

26. Shortening of coagulation time after injection of adrenin 151

27. Differing effects upon the coagulation time of slow and rapid injections of adrenin 153

28. Persistent shortening of the coagulation time after injection of adrenin when brain and upper cord pithed 154

29. Shortening of coagulation time after stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves 163

30. Shortening of coagulation time after stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves 164

31. Results of stimulating the left splanchnic nerves after removal of the left adrenal gland; and of stimulating the right splanchnic nerves with right adrenal gland present 169

32. Three shortenings of coagulation time after stimulation of the left sciatic nerve 174

33. Shortening of coagulation time during an operation under light anesthesia 175

34. Record of rapid clotting after emotional excitement 180

35. Rapid clotting after emotional excitement, with slowing of the process when the splanchnic nerves were cut in the thorax 182

36. Adrenal secretion produced by asphyxia 208

37. Intragastric pressure, respiration and report of hunger pangs against time 257

38. The same conditions as in Fig. 37 259

39. Compression of thin rubber bag in the lower esophagus, and report of hunger pangs against time 260

BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN, HUNGER, FEAR AND RAGE

CHAPTER I. The Effect of the Emotions on Digestion

THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS ON DIGESTION

The doctrine of human development from subhuman antecedents has done much to unravel the complex nature of man. As a means of interpretation this doctrine has been directed chiefly toward the solving of puzzles in the peculiarities of anatomical structure. Thus arrangements in the human body, which are without obvious utility, receive rational explanation as being vestiges of parts useful in or characteristic of remote ancestors--parts retained in man because of age-long racial inheritance. This mode of interpretation has proved applicable also in accounting for functional peculiarities. Expressive actions and gestures--the facial appearance in anger, for example--observed in children and in widely distinct races, are found to be innate, and are best explained as the retention in human beings of responses which are similar in character in lower animals.

From this point of view biology has contributed much to clarify our ideas regarding the motives of human behavior. The social philosophies which prevailed during the past century either assumed that conduct was determined by a calculated search for pleasure and avoidance of pain or they ascribed it to a vague and undefined faculty named the conscience or the moral sense. Comparative study of the behavior of men and of lower animals under various circumstances, however, especially with the purpose of learning the source of prevailing impulses, is revealing the inadequacy of the theories of the older psychologists. More and more it is appearing that in men of all races and in most of the higher animals, the springs of action are to be found in the influence of certain emotions which express themselves in characteristic instinctive acts.

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