Astronomy of to-Day: a Popular Introduction in Non-Technical Language

CHAPTER XXVIII. The End of Things 342

THE END OF THINGS 342

INDEX 351

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN OF AUGUST 30, 1905 Frontispiece

I. THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN OF MAY 17, 1882 To face page 96

II. GREAT TELESCOPE OF HEVELIUS " " 110

III. A TUBELESS, OR "AERIAL" TELESCOPE " " 112

IV. THE GREAT YERKES TELESCOPE " " 118

V. THE SUN, SHOWING SEVERAL GROUPS OF SPOTS " " 134

VI. PHOTOGRAPH OF A SUNSPOT " " 136

VII. FORMS OF THE SOLAR CORONA AT THE EPOCHS OF SUNSPOT MAXIMUM AND SUNSPOT MINIMUM RESPECTIVELY. (A) THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN OF DECEMBER 22, 1870. (B) THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN OF MAY 28, 1900 " " 142

VIII. THE MOON To face page 196

IX. MAP OF THE MOON, SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL "CRATERS," MOUNTAIN RANGES AND "SEAS" " " 198

X. ONE OF THE MOST INTERESTING REGIONS ON THE MOON " " 200

XI. THE MOON (SHOWING SYSTEMS OF "RAYS") " " 204

XII. A MAP OF THE PLANET MARS " " 216

XIII. MINOR PLANET TRAILS " " 226

XIV. THE PLANET JUPITER " " 230

XV. THE PLANET SATURN " " 236

XVI. EARLY REPRESENTATIONS OF SATURN " " 242

XVII. DONATI'S COMET " " 256

XVIII. DANIEL'S COMET OF 1907 " " 258

XIX. THE SKY AROUND THE NORTH POLE " " 292

XX. ORION AND HIS NEIGHBOURS " " 296

XXI. THE GREAT GLOBULAR CLUSTER IN THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATION OF CENTAURUS " " 306

XXII. SPIRAL NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION OF CANES VENATICI " " 314

XXIII. THE GREAT NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION OF ANDROMEDA To face page 316

XXIV. THE GREAT NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION OF ORION " " 318

LIST OF DIAGRAMS

FIG. PAGE 1. THE PTOLEMAIC IDEA OF THE UNIVERSE 19

2. THE COPERNICAN THEORY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM 21

3. TOTAL AND PARTIAL ECLIPSES OF THE MOON 64

4. TOTAL AND PARTIAL ECLIPSES OF THE SUN 67

5. "BAILY'S BEADS" 70

6. MAP OF THE WORLD ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION, SHOWING A PORTION OF THE PROGRESS OF THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 30, 1905, ACROSS THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH 81

7. THE "RING WITH WINGS" 87

8. THE VARIOUS TYPES OF TELESCOPE 113

9. THE SOLAR SPECTRUM 123

10. A SECTION THROUGH THE SUN, SHOWING HOW THE PROMINENCES RISE FROM THE CHROMOSPHERE 131

11. ORBIT AND PHASES OF AN INFERIOR PLANET 148

12. THE "BLACK DROP" 153

13. SUMMER AND WINTER 176

14. ORBIT AND PHASES OF THE MOON 184

15. THE ROTATION OF THE MOON ON HER AXIS 187

16. LAPLACE'S "PERENNIAL FULL MOON" 191

17. ILLUSTRATING THE AUTHOR'S EXPLANATION OF THE APPARENT ENLARGEMENT OF CELESTIAL OBJECTS 195

18. SHOWING HOW THE TAIL OF A COMET IS DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE SUN 248

19. THE COMET OF 1066, AS REPRESENTED IN THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY 263

20. PASSAGE OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE THICKEST PORTION OF A METEOR SWARM 269

ASTRONOMY OF TO-DAY

CHAPTER I. The Ancient View

THE ANCIENT VIEW

It is never safe, as we know, to judge by appearances, and this is perhaps more true of astronomy than of anything else.

For instance, the idea which one would most naturally form of the earth and heaven is that the solid earth on which we live and move extends to a great distance in every direction, and that the heaven is an immense dome upon the inner surface of which the stars are fixed. Such must needs have been the idea of the universe held by men in the earliest times. In their view the earth was of paramount importance. The sun and moon were mere lamps for the day and for the night; and these, if not gods themselves, were at any rate under the charge of special deities, whose task it was to guide their motions across the vaulted sky.

Little by little, however, this simple estimate of nature began to be overturned. Difficult problems agitated the human mind. On what, for instance, did the solid earth rest, and what prevented the vaulted heaven from falling in upon men and crushing them out of existence? Fantastic myths sprang from the vain attempts to solve these riddles. The Hindoos, for example, imagined the earth as supported by four elephants which stood upon the back of a gigantic tortoise, which, in its turn, floated on the surface of an elemental ocean. The early Western civilisations conceived the fable of the Titan Atlas, who, as a punishment for revolt against the Olympian gods, was condemned to hold up the expanse of sky for ever and ever.

Later on glimmerings of the true light began to break in upon men. The Greek philosophers, who busied themselves much with such matters, gradually became convinced that the earth was spherical in shape, that is to say, round like a ball. In this opinion we now know that they were right; but in their other important belief, viz. that the earth was placed at the centre of all things, they were indeed very far from the truth.

By the second century of the Christian era, the ideas of the early philosophers had become hardened into a definite theory, which, though it appears very incorrect to us to-day, nevertheless demands exceptional notice from the fact that it was everywhere accepted as the true explanation until so late as some four centuries ago. This theory of the universe is known by the name of the Ptolemaic System, because it was first set forth in definite terms by one of the most famous of the astronomers of antiquity, Claudius Ptolemæus Pelusinensis (100-170 A.D.), better known as Ptolemy of Alexandria.

In his system the Earth occupied the centre; while around it circled in order outwards the Moon, the planets Mercury and Venus, the Sun, and then the planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Beyond these again revolved the background of the heaven, upon which it was believed that the stars were fixed--

"Stellis ardentibus aptum,"

as Virgil puts it (see Fig. 1).

The Ptolemaic system persisted unshaken for about fourteen hundred years after the death of its author. Clearly men were flattered by the notion that their earth was the most important body in nature, that it stood still at the centre of the universe, and was the pivot upon which all things revolved.

CHAPTER II. The Modern View

THE MODERN VIEW

It is still well under four hundred years since the modern, or Copernican, theory of the universe supplanted the Ptolemaic, which had held sway during so many centuries. In this new theory, propounded towards the middle of the sixteenth century by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Prussian astronomer, the earth was dethroned from its central position and considered merely as one of a number of planetary bodies which revolve around the sun. As it is not a part of our purpose to follow in detail the history of the science, it seems advisable to begin by stating in a broad fashion the conception of the universe as accepted and believed in to-day.

The Sun, the most important of the celestial bodies so far as we are concerned, occupies the central position; not, however, in the whole universe, but only in that limited portion which is known as the Solar System. Around it, in the following order outwards, circle the planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune (see Fig. 2, p. 21). At an immense distance beyond the solar system, and scattered irregularly through the depth of space, lie the stars. The two first-mentioned members of the solar system, Mercury and Venus, are known as the Inferior Planets; and in their courses about the sun, they always keep well inside the path along which our earth moves. The remaining members (exclusive of the earth) are called Superior Planets, and their paths lie all outside that of the earth.

The five planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have been known from all antiquity. Nothing then can bring home to us more strongly the immense advance which has taken place in astronomy during modern times than the fact that it is only 127 years since observation of the skies first added a planet to that time-honoured number. It was indeed on the 13th of March 1781, while engaged in observing the constellation of the Twins, that the justly famous Sir William Herschel caught sight of an object which he did not recognise as having met with before. He at first took it for a comet, but observations of its movements during a few days showed it to be a planet. This body, which the power of the telescope alone had thus shown to belong to the solar family, has since become known to science under the name of Uranus. By its discovery the hitherto accepted limits of the solar system were at once pushed out to twice their former extent, and the hope naturally arose that other planets would quickly reveal themselves in the immensities beyond.

For a number of years prior to Herschel's great discovery, it had been noticed that the distances at which the then known planets circulated appeared to be arranged in a somewhat orderly progression outwards from the sun. This seeming plan, known to astronomers by the name of Bode's Law, was closely confirmed by the distance of the new planet Uranus. There still lay, however, a broad gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter. Had another planet indeed circuited there, the solar system would have presented an appearance of almost perfect order. But the void between Mars and Jupiter was unfilled; the space in which one would reasonably expect to find another planet circling was unaccountably empty.

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