An Introduction to the Study of Fishes

CHAPTER XII.

ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION 157

Fishes are dioecious, 157--Hermaphroditism, 157--Oviparous and viviparous fishes, 157--Generative organs of Branchiostoma, 157--of Cyclostomes; their ova, 158--Female organs of Teleosteans and their ova, 158--Instances of females taking care of their progeny, 160--Male organs of Teleosteans, 162--Instances of males taking care of their progeny, 163--Generative organs of Ganoids, 163--of Chondropterygians and their ova, 166.

CHAPTER XIII.

GROWTH AND VARIATION OF FISHES 170

Changes of form of the body or certain parts, normally accompanying growth, 170--Changes dependent on sexual development, 176--Secondary sexual differences, 176--Mixogamous, polygamous, and monogamous fishes, 177--Hybridism as a cause of variation, 178--Regular and irregular growth of fishes, 178--Leptocephali not a normal state of development, 179--Changes of colour of the muscles and external parts; chromatophors, 182--Albinism, 183.

CHAPTER XIV.

DOMESTICATED AND ACCLIMATISED FISHES, ETC. 185

Domesticated fishes, 185--Acclimatisation of fishes, 185--Artificial impregnation of ova, 186--Tenacity of life, 186--Reproduction of lost parts, 188--Hybernation, 188--Useful fishes, 189--Poisonous fishes, 189--Poison-organs, 190.

CHAPTER XV.

DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN TIME 193

Oldest fish-remains, 193--Devonian fishes, 194--Carboniferous, 196--Permian, 197--Triassic, 197--Liassic, 198--Oolitic, 199--Cretaceous, 199--Tertiary, 200--Post-pliocene, 201.

CHAPTER XVI.. The Distribution of Existing Fishes Over the Earth’s

THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXISTING FISHES OVER THE EARTH’S SURFACE.--GENERAL REMARKS 202

Freshwater-, Marine-, and Brackish-water Fishes, 202--Changes of the habitat of numerous fishes, active, 203--or dependent on geological changes, 204--Agencies operating upon the distribution of Freshwater and Marine fishes, 205.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER FISHES 208

List of Freshwater Fishes, 208--Continuous and interrupted range of distribution, 209--The ways of dispersal of Freshwater fishes, 211--A wide range of a type is not necessarily proof of its antiquity, 212--Each fauna is composed of ancient, autochthont, and immigrant species, 213--Division of the globe into zoological regions; freshwater fishes have been spread in circumpolar zones, 215--Cyprinidæ and Siluridæ, most important families in recognising the zoo-geographical regions, 216--Division of the faunæ of Freshwater fishes, 217--I. Equatorial Zone, 218--Indian Region, 220--African Region, 227--Tropical American or Neotropical Region, 233--Tropical Pacific Region, 238--II. Northern Zone, 240--Europe-Asiatic or Palæarctic Region, 243--North American or Nearctic Region, 246--III. Southern Zone, with Tasmanian, New Zealand, and Fuegian Sub-regions, 248.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FISHES OF THE BRACKISH WATER 251

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE FISHES 255

Shore-fishes, Pelagic, and Deep-sea fishes, 255--List of Shore-fishes, 257--Oceanic areæ as determined by Shore-fishes, 259--Distribution of Shore-fishes compared with that of Freshwater-fishes, 260--I. Arctic Ocean, 261--II. Northern Temperate Zone, 262--Temperate North-Atlantic, 262--with British, 263--Mediterranean, 264--and North American districts, 266--Temperate North-Pacific, 268--with Kamtschatkan, 269--Japanese, 270--and Californian districts, 271--III. Equatorial Zone, 272--with Tropical Atlantic, 278--Indo-Pacific Ocean, 278--and the Pacific Coasts of Tropical America, 279--IV. Southern Temperate Zone, 281--with the Cape of Good Hope, 283--South Australia and New Zealand, 283--Chile, 288--and Patagonia, 289--V. Antarctic Ocean, 289.

CHAPTER XX.

DISTRIBUTION OF PELAGIC FISHES 292

CHAPTER XXI.

THE FISHES OF THE DEEP SEA 296

Deep-sea fishes a recent discovery, 296--Physical conditions affecting these fishes, 297--Characteristics of Deep-sea fishes, 299--Their vertical and horizontal distribution, 304--List of Deep-sea fishes, 305.

SYSTEMATIC AND DESCRIPTIVE PART.

FIRST SUB-CLASS--PALÆICHTHYES.

PAGE FIRST ORDER--CHONDROPTERYGII 313

I. Plagiostomata 313

A. Selachoidei--Sharks 314

Families: Carchariidæ (Blue Shark, Tope, Hammerhead, Hound), 316--Lamnidæ (Porbeagle, Carcharodon, Fox-Shark, Basking-Shark), 319--Rhinodontidæ, 323--Notidanidæ, 324--Scylliidæ (Dog-fishes), 325--Hybodontidæ, 328--Cestraciontidæ (Port Jackson Shark), 328--Spinacidæ (Spiny Dogs, Greenland Shark), 330--Rhinidæ, 334--Pristiophoridæ, 335.

B. Batoidei--Rays 335

Families: Pristidæ (Saw-fishes), 336--Rhinobatidæ, 337--Torpedinidæ (Electric Rays), 338--Rajidæ (Rays and Skates), 340--Trygonidæ (Sting Rays), 342--Myliobatidæ (Eagle Rays), 344.

II. Holocephala 348

Family: Chimæridæ, 348.

SECOND ORDER--GANOIDEI 350

I. Placodermi 351

II. Acanthodini 355

III. Dipnoi 355

Families: Sirenidæ (Lepidosiren, Protopterus, Ceratodus), 355--Ctenododipteridæ, 359--Phaneropleuridæ, 360.

IV. Chondrostei 360

Families: Acipenseridæ (Sturgeons), 360--Polyodontidæ, 362.

V. Polypteroidei 363

Families: Polypteridæ, 364--Saurodipteridæ, 365--Coelacanthidæ, 365--Holoptychidæ, 365.

VI. Pycnodontoidei 366

Families: Pleurolepidæ, 366--Pycnodontidæ, 366.

VII. Lepidosteoidei 367

Families: Lepidosteidæ, 367--Sauridæ, 368--Stylodontidæ, 368--Sphærodontidæ, 368--Aspidorhynchidæ, 369--Palæoniscidæ, 369--Platysomidæ, 370.

VIII. Amioidei 370

Families: Caturidæ, 371--Leptolepidæ, 371--Amiidæ (Bow-fin), 371.

SECOND SUB-CLASS--TELEOSTEI.

FIRST ORDER--ACANTHOPTERYGII 374

I. A. perciformes 374

Families: Percidæ (Freshwater-Perches, Bass, Sea-Perches, Centrarchus), 375--Squamipinnes (Coral-Fishes), 397--Mullidæ (Red-Mullets), 403--Sparidæ (Sea-breams), 405--Hoplognathidæ, 410--Cirrhitidæ, 410--Scorpænidæ, 412--Nandidæ, 418--Polycentridæ, 418--Teuthididæ, 418.

II. A. beryciformes 419

Family: Berycidæ, 420.

III. A. kurtiformes 424

Family: Kurtidæ, 424.

IV. A. polynemiformes 425

Family: Polynemidæ, 425.

V. A. sciæniformes 426

Family: Sciænidæ (Meagres), 426.

VI. A. xiphiiformes 431

Family: Xiphiidæ (Sword-fishes), 431.

VII. A. trichiuriformes 433

Families: Trichiuridæ (Scabbard-fishes, Hairtails), 433--Palæorhynchidæ, 437.

VIII. A. cotto-scombriformes 438

Families: Acronuridæ (Surgeons), 438--Carangidæ (Horse-Mackerels, Pilot-fish, Boar-fish), 440--Cyttidæ (John Dorey), 450--Stromateidæ, 452--Coryphænidæ (Dolphin, Sun-fish), 452--Nomeidæ, 455--Scombridæ (Mackerel, Tunny, Bonito, Albacore, Sucking-fish), 456--Trachinidæ (Stare-gazer, Weever, etc.), 462--Malacanthidæ, 467--Batrachidæ, 467--Psychrolutidæ, 469--Pediculati (Angler, Antennarius, etc.), 469--Cottidæ (Bull-heads, Gurnards), 476--Cataphracti (Flying Gurnards), 480--Pegasidæ, 482.

IX. A. gobiiformes 483

Families: Discoboli (Lump-suckers), 483--Gobiidæ (Gobies, Dragonets), 485.

X. A. blenniiformes 490

Families: Cepolidæ (Band-fishes), 490--Trichonotidæ, 490--Heterolepidotidæ, 491--Blenniidæ (Wolf-fish, Blennies), 492--Acanthoclinidæ, 498--Mastacembelidæ, 499.

XI. A. mugiliformes 499

Families: Sphyrænidæ (Barracudas), 499--Atherinidæ (Atherines), 500--Mugilidæ (Mullets), 501.

XII. A. gastrosteiformes 504

Families: Gastrosteidæ (Sticklebacks), 504--Fistulariidæ (Flute-mouths), 507.

XIII. A. centrisciformes 508

Family: Centriscidæ, 508.

XIV. A. gobiesociformes 510

Family: Gobiesocidæ, 512.

XV. A. channiformes 513

Family: Ophiocephalidæ, 513.

XVI. A. labyrinthibranchii 514

Families: Labyrinthici (Climbing Perch, Gourami), 514--Luciocephalidæ, 519.

XVII. A. lophotiformes 519

Family: Lophotidæ, 519.

XVIII. A. tæniiformes 520

Family: Trachypteridæ (Ribbon-fishes), 520.

XIX. A. notacanthiformes 523

Family: Notacanthidæ, 523.

SECOND ORDER--ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHI 523

Families: Pomacentridæ (Coral-fishes), 524--Labridæ (Wrasses, Parrot-wrasses), 525--Embiotocidæ, 533--Chromides, 534.

THIRD ORDER--ANACANTHINI 537

I. A. gadoidei 537

Families: Lycodidæ, 537--Gadidæ (Cod-fishes, Hake, Burbot, Ling, Rockling, Torsk), 539--Ophidiidæ (Brotula, Fierasfer, Sand-eel, Congrogadus), 546--Macruridæ, 551.

II. A. pleuronectoidei 553

Family: Pleuronectidæ (Flat-fishes), 553.

FOURTH ORDER--PHYSOSTOMI 559

Families: Siluridæ; their skeleton, 559--divided into eight subdivisions and sixteen groups; Clariina, 563--Plotosina, 563--Silurina, 565--Hypophthalmina, 566--Bagrina, 567--Amiurina, 567--Pimelodina, 568--Ariina, 569--Doradina, 572--Rhinoglanina, 573--Malapterurina (Electric Catfish), 574--Hypostomatina (Preñadillas, Loricaria, etc.), 575--Aspredinina, 580--Nematogenyina and Trichomycterina, 581--Stegopholina, 581.

Families of Physostomi continued: Scopelidæ, 582--Cyprinidæ (Carps), 587--divided into fourteen groups, viz. Catostomina (Suckers), 588--Cyprinina (Carp, Crucian Carp, Gold-fish, Barbels, Gudgeons), 589--Rohteichthyina, 596--Leptobarbina, 597--Rasborina, 597--Semiplotina, 598--Xenocypridina, 598--Leuciscina (White fish, Tench, Dace, etc.), 598--Rhodeina, 601--Danionina, 601--Hypophthalmichthyina, 602--Abramidina (Bream, Bleak), 602--Homalopterina, 604--Cobitidina (Loaches), 604.

Families of Physostomi continued: Kneriidæ, 606--Characinidæ, 606--Cyprinodontidæ, 613--Heteropygii (Blind Fish of the Mammoth Cave), 618--Umbridæ, 619--Scombresocidæ (Gar-pike, Saury, Half-beak, Flying Fish), 619--Esocidæ (Pike), 623--Galaxiidæ, 624--Mormyridæ, 625--Sternoptychidæ, 627--Stomiatidæ, 629.

Families of Physostomi continued--Salmonidæ: Salmo, difficulty of distinguishing species, 630; constant specific characters, 635--hybrids, 638--sexual development, 638--migratory species and their retention in freshwater, 639--Growth of Salmonoids, 641--their domestication and acclimatisation, 641--species enumerated, 642--Smelt and Capelin, 646--Coregonus, 647--Grayling, 649--marine genera, 650.

Families of Physostomi continued: Percopsidæ, 651--Haplochitonidæ, 651--Gonorhynchidæ, 652--Hyodontidæ (Moon-eye), 653--Pantodontidæ, 653--Osteoglossidæ, 653--Clupeidæ (Herrings, Anchovies, Shads, Mossbanker, Menhaden, etc.), 655--Bathythrissidæ, 663--Chirocentridæ, 663--Alepocephalidæ, 664--Notopteridæ, 664--Halosauridæ, 665--Hoplopleuridæ, 665--Gymnotidæ (Electric Eel), 666--Symbranchidæ, 668--Murænidæ (Eels, Congers, Murænas, etc.), 669.

FIFTH ORDER--LOPHOBRANCHII 678

Families: Solenostomidæ, 678--Syngnathidæ (Pipe-fishes, Sea-horses), 679.

SIXTH ORDER--PLECTOGNATHI 683

Families: Sclerodermi (File-fishes, Coffer-fishes), 684--Gymnodontes (Globe-fishes, Sun-fish), 686.

THIRD SUB-CLASS--CYCLOSTOMATA.

Families: Petromyzontidæ (Lampreys), 691--Myxinidæ, 694.

FOURTH SUB-CLASS--LEPTOCARDII.

Family: Cirrhostomi (Lancelets), 696.

APPENDIX.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES 697

ALPHABETICAL INDEX 707

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

According to the views generally adopted at present, all those Vertebrate animals are referred to the Class of Fishes, which living in water, breathe air dissolved in water by means of gills or branchiæ; whose heart consists of a single ventricle and single atrium; whose limbs, if present, are modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired, median fins; and whose skin is either naked, or covered with scales or osseous plates or bucklers. With few exceptions fishes are oviparous. However, there are not a few members of this Class which show a modification of one or more of these characteristics, as we shall see hereafter, and which, nevertheless, cannot be separated from it. The distinction between the Class of Fishes and that of Batrachians is very slight indeed.

The branch of Zoology which treats of the internal and external structure of fishes, their mode of life, and their distribution in space and time, is termed Ichthyology.

CHAPTER I.. History and Literature.

HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

The commencement of the history of Ichthyology coincides with that of Zoology generally. ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.) had a perfect knowledge of the general structure of fishes, which he clearly discriminates from the Aquatic animals with lungs and mammæ, i.e. Cetaceans, and from the various groups of Aquatic Invertebrates. He says that “the special characteristics of the true fishes consist in the branchiæ and fins, the majority having four fins, but those of an elongate form, as the eels, having two only. Some, as the Muræna, lack the fins altogether. The Rays swim with their whole body, which is spread out. The branchiæ are sometimes furnished with an opercle, sometimes without one, as is the case in the cartilaginous fishes.... No fish has hairs or feathers; most are covered with scales, but some have a rough or smooth skin. The tongue is hard, often toothed; and sometimes so much adherent that it seems to be wanting. The eyes have no lids; nor are any ears or nostrils visible, for what takes the place of nostrils is a blind cavity. Nevertheless they have the senses of tasting, smelling, and hearing. All have blood. All scaly fishes are oviparous, but the cartilaginous fishes (with the exception of the Sea-devil, which Aristotle places along with them) are viviparous. All have a heart, liver, and gall-bladder; but kidneys and urinary bladder are absent. They vary much in the structure of their intestines: for whilst the mullet has a fleshy stomach like a bird, others have no stomachic dilatation. Pyloric coeca are close to the stomach, variable in number; there are even some, like the majority of the cartilaginous fishes, which have none whatever. Two bodies are situated along the spine, which have the function of testicles, and open towards the vent, and which are much enlarged in the spawning season. The scales become harder with age. Not being provided with lungs, they have no voice, but several can emit grunting sounds. They sleep like other animals. In the majority the females exceed the males in size; and in the Rays and Sharks the male is distinguished by an appendage on each side of the vent.”

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