A Literary History of the English People, From the Origins to the Renaissance

CHAPTER I.. Britannia.

BRITANNIA.

I. Fusion of Races in France and in England.--First inhabitants--Celtic realms--The Celts in Britain--Similitude with the Celts of Gaul--Their religion--Their quick minds--Their gift of speech 3

II. Celtic Literature.--Irish stories--Wealth of that literature--Its characteristics--The dramatic gift--Inventiveness--Heroic deeds--Familiar dialogues--Love and woman--Welsh tales 9

III. Roman Conquest.--Duration and results--First coming of the Germanic invader 18

CHAPTER II.. The Germanic Invasion.

THE GERMANIC INVASION.

The mother country of the Germanic invader--Tacitus--Germans and Scandinavians--The great invasions--Character of the Teutonic nations--Germanic kingdoms established in formerly Roman provinces. Jutes, Frisians, Angles, and Saxons--British resistance and defeat--Problem of the Celtic survival--Results of the Germanic invasions in England and France 21

CHAPTER III.. The National Poetry of the Anglo-Saxons.

THE NATIONAL POETRY OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS.

I. The Poetry of the North.--The Germanic period of English literature--Its characteristics--Anglo-Saxon poetry stands apart and does not submit to Celtic influence--Comparison with Scandinavian literature--The Eddas and Sagas; the "Corpus Poeticum Boreale"--The heroes; their tragical adventures--Their temper and sorrows 36

II. Anglo-Saxon Poems.--War-songs--Epic tales--Waldhere, Beowulf--Analysis of "Beowulf"--The ideal of happiness in "Beowulf"--Landscapes--Sad meditations--The idea of death--Northern snows 45

CHAPTER IV.. Christian Literature and Prose Literature of the Anglo-Saxons.

CHRISTIAN LITERATURE AND PROSE LITERATURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS.

I. Conversion.--Arrival of Augustine--The new teaching--The imperial idea and the Christian idea--Beginnings of the new faith--Heathen survivals--Convents and schools--Religious kings and princes--Proselytism, St. Boniface 60

II. Latin Culture.--Manuscripts--Alcuin, St. Boniface, Aldhelm, AEddi, Bede--Life and writings of Bede--His "Ecclesiastical History"--His sympathy for the national literature 65

III. Christian Poems.--The genius of the race remains nearly unchanged--Heroical adventures of the saints--Paraphrase of the Bible--Caedmon--Cynewulf--His sorrows and despair--"Dream of the Rood"--"Andreas"--Lugubrious sights--The idea of death--Dialogues--Various poems--The "Physiologus"--"Phoenix" 68

IV. Prose--Alfred the Great.--Laws and charters--Alfred and the Danish invasions--The fight for civilisation--Translation of works by St. Gregory, Orosius (travels of Ohthere), Boethius (story of Orpheus)--Impulsion given to prose--Werferth--Anglo-Saxon Chronicles--Character of Alfred. 78

V. St. Dunstan--Sermons.--St. Dunstan (tenth century) resumes the work of Alfred--Translation of pious works--Collections of sermons--AElfric, Wulfstan, "Blickling" homilies--Attempt to reach literary dignity. End of the Anglo-Saxon period 88

BOOK II.. _the French Invasion._

THE FRENCH INVASION.

CHAPTER I.

BATTLE.

I. The Invaders of the Year 1066.--England between two civilisations--The North and South--The Scandinavians at Stamford-bridge. The Normans of France--The army of William is a French army--Character of William--The battle--Occupation of the country 97

II. England bound to Southern Civilisations.--Policy of William--Survey of his new domains--Unification--The successors of William--Their practical mind and their taste for adventures--Taste for art--French families settled in England--Continental possessions of English kings--French ideal--Unification of origins--Help from chroniclers and poets--The Trojan ancestor 104

CHAPTER II.. Literature in the French Language Under the Norman

LITERATURE IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE UNDER THE NORMAN AND ANGEVIN KINGS.

I. Diffusion of the French Language.--The French language superimposed on the English one--Its progress; even among "lowe men"--Authors of English blood write their works in French 116

II. The French Literature of the Normans and Angevins.--It is animated by their own practical and adventurous mind--Practical works: chronicles, scientific and pious treatises 120

III. Epic Romances.--The Song of Roland and the Charlemagne cycle--Comparison with "Beowulf"--The matter of Rome--How antiquity is translated--Wonders--The matter of Britain--Love--Geoffrey of Monmouth--Tristan and Iseult--Lancelot and Guinevere--Woman--Love as a passion and love as a ceremonial 125

IV. Lays and Chansons.--Shorter stories--Lays of Marie de France--Chansons of France--Songs in French composed in England 141

V. Satirical and Ironical Works.--Such works introduced in England--The pilgrimage of Charlemagne--The "Roman de Renart," a universal comedy--Fabliaux--Their migrations--Their aim--Their influence in England 146

CHAPTER III.. Latin.

LATIN.

I. The Ties with Rome.--William I., Henry II., John--Church lands--The "exempt" abbeys--Coming of the friars--The clergy in Parliament--Part played by prelates in the State--Warrior prelates, administrators, scavants, saints 157

II. Spreading of Knowledge.--Latin education--Schools and libraries--Book collectors: Richard of Bury--Paris, chief town for Latin studies--The Paris University; its origins, teaching, and organisation--English students at Paris--Oxford and Cambridge--Studies, battles, feasts--Colleges, chests, libraries 166

III. Latin Poets.--Joseph of Exeter and the Trojan war--Epigrammatists, satirists, fabulists, &c.--Nigel Wireker and the ass whose tail was too short--Theories: Geoffrey of Vinesauf and his New Art of Poetry 176

IV. Latin Prosators--Tales and Exempla.--Geoffrey of Monmouth--Moralised tales--"Gesta Romanorum"--John of Bromyard--"Risque" tales, fables in prose, miracles of the Virgin, romantic tales--A Latin sketch of the "Merchant of Venice"--John of Salisbury; Walter Map--Their pictures of contemporary manners 181

V. Theologians, Jurists, Scientists, Historians.--The "Doctors"; Scot, Bacon, Ockham, Bradwardine, &c.--Gaddesden the physician--Bartholomew the encyclopaedist--Roman law and English law--Vacarius, Glanville, Bracton, &c. History--Composition of chronicles in monasteries--Impartiality of chroniclers--Their idea of historical art--Henry of Huntingdon, William of Malmesbury, Matthew Paris--Observation of manners, preservation of characteristic anecdotes, attempt to paint with colours--Higden, Walsingham and others 193

CHAPTER IV.. Literature in the English Language.

LITERATURE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

I. Pious Literature.--A period of silence--First works (pious ones) copied, translated or composed in English after the Conquest--Sermons--Lives of saints--Treatises of various sort--"Ancren Riwle"--Translation of French treatises--Life and works of Rolle of Hampole 204

II. Worldly Literature.--Adaptation and imitation of French writings--The "Brut" of Layamon--Translation of romances of chivalry--Romances dedicated to heroes of English origin--Satirical fabliaux--Renard in English--Lays and tales--Songs--Comparison with French chansons 219

BOOK III.. _england to the English._

ENGLAND TO THE ENGLISH.

CHAPTER I.

THE NEW NATION.

I. Fusion of Races and Languages.--Abolition of the presentment of Englishery, 1340--Survival of the French language in the fourteenth century--The decline--Part played by "lowe men" in the formation of the English language--The new vocabulary--The new prosody--The new grammar--The definitive language of England an outcome of a transaction between the Anglo-Saxon and the French language 235

II. Political Formation.--The nation coalesces--The ties with France and Rome are loosening or breaking--A new source of power, Westminster--Formation, importance, privileges of Parliament under the Plantagenets--Spirit of the Commons--Their Norman bargains--Comparison with France 248

III. Maritime Power; Wealth and Arts.--Importance of the English trade in the fourteenth century--The great traders--Their influence on State affairs--The English, "rois de la mer"--Taste for travels and adventures. Arts--Gold, silver and ivory--Miniatures and enamels--Architecture--Paintings and tapestries--Comparative comfort of houses--The hall and table--Dresses--The nude--The cult for beauty 255

CHAPTER II.. Chaucer.

CHAUCER.

The Poet of the new nation 267

I. Youth of Chaucer.--His London life--London in the fourteenth century--Chaucer as a page--His French campaigns--Valettus camerae Regis--Esquire--Married life--Poetry a la mode--Machault, Deguileville, Froissart, Des Champs, &c.--Chaucer's love ditties--The "Roman de la Rose"--"Book of the Duchesse" 268

II. Period of the Missions to France and Italy.--The functions of an ambassador and messenger--Various missions--Chaucer in Italy, 1372-3, 1378-9--Influence of Italian art and literature on Chaucer--London again; the Custom House; Aldgate--Works of this period--Latin and Italian deal--The gods of Olympus, the nude, the classics--Imitation of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio--"Hous of Fame" 282

III. Troilus and Criseyde.--Plot derived from Boccaccio but transformed--A novel and a drama--Life and variety--Heroism and vulgarity--Troilus, Pandarus, Cressida--Scenes of comedy--Attempt at psychological analysis--Nuances in Cressida's feelings--Her inconstancy--Melancholy and grave ending--Difference with Boccaccio and Pierre de Beauveau 298

IV. English Period.--Chaucer a member of Parliament--Clerk of the king's works--"Canterbury Tales"--The meeting at the "Tabard"--Gift of observation--Real life, details--Difference with Froissart--Humour, sympathy--Part allotted to "lowe men." The collections of tales--The "Decameron"--The aim of Chaucer and of Boccaccio--Chaucer's variety; speakers and listeners--Dialogues--Principal tales--Facetious and coarse ones--Plain ones--Fairy tales--Common life--Heroic deeds--Grave examples--Sermon. The care for truth--Good sense of Chaucer--His language and versification--Chaucer and the Anglo-Saxons--Chaucer and the French 312

V. Last Years.--Chaucer, King of Letters--His retreat in St. Mary's, Westminster--His death--His fame 341

CHAPTER III.. The Group of Poets.

THE GROUP OF POETS.

Coppice and forest trees 344

I. Metrical Romances.--Jugglers and minstrels--Their life, deeds, and privileges--Decay of the profession towards the time of the Renaissance--Romances of the "Sir Thopas" type--Monotony; inane wonders--Better examples: "Morte Arthure," "William of Palerne," "Gawayne and the Green Knight"--Merits of "Gawayne"--From (probably) the same author, "Pearl," on the death of a young maid--Vision of the Celestial City 344

II. Amorous Ballads and Popular Poetry.--Poetry at Court--The Black Prince and the great--Professional poets come to the help of the great--The Pui of London; its competitions, music and songs--Satirical songs on women, friars, fops, &c. 352

III. Patriotic Poetry.--Robin Hood--"When Adam delved"--Claims of peasants--Answers to the peasants' claims--National glories--Adam Davy--Crecy, Poictiers, Neville's Cross--Laurence Minot--Recurring sadness--French answers--Scottish answers--Barbour's "Bruce"--Style of Barbour--Barbour and Scott 359

IV. John Gower.--His origin, family, turn of mind--He belongs to Angevin England--He is tri-lingual--Life and principal works--French ballads--Latin poem on the rising of the peasants, 1381, and on the vices of society--Poem in English, "Confessio Amantis"--Style of Gower--His tales and exempla--His fame 364

CHAPTER IV.. William Langland and His Visions.

WILLIAM LANGLAND AND HIS VISIONS.

Langland first poet of the period after Chaucer 373

I. Life and Works.--A general view--Birth, education, natural disposition--Life at Malvern--His unsettled state of mind--Curiosities and failures--Life in London--Chantries--Disease of the will--Religious doubts--The faith of the simple--His book a place of refuge for him 374

II. Analysis of the Visions.--The pilgrims of Langland and the pilgrims of Chaucer--The road to Canterbury and the way to Truth--Lady Meed; her betrothal, her trial--Speech of Reason--The hero of the work, Piers the Plowman--A declaration of duties--Sermons--The siege of hell--The end of life 382

III. Political Society and Religious Society.--Comparison with Chaucer--Langland's crowds--Langland an insular and a parliamentarian--The "Visions" and the "Rolls of Parliament" agree on nearly all points--Langland at one with the Commons--Organisation of the State--Reforms--Relations with France, with the Pope--Religious buyers and sellers--The ideal of Langland 388

IV. Art and Aim.--Duplication of his personality--"Nuit de Decembre"--Sincerity--Incoherences--Scene-shifting--Joys forbidden and allowed--A motto for Langland--His language, vocabulary, dialect, versification--Popularity of the work--Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries--Time of the Reformation 394

CHAPTER V.. Prose in the Fourteenth Century.

PROSE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

The "father of English prose" 403

I. Translators and Adaptators.--Slow growth of the art of prose--Comparison with France; historians and novelists--Survival of Latin prose--Walsingham and other chroniclers--Their style and eloquence--Translators--Trevisa--The translation of the Travels of "Mandeville"--The "Mandeville" problem--Jean de Bourgogne and his journey through books--Immense success of the Travels--Style of the English translation--Chaucer's prose 404

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