A History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878

CHAPTER I.. France and Germany At the Outbreak of the Revolutionary War.

FRANCE AND GERMANY AT THE OUTBREAK OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.

Outbreak of the Revolutionary War in 1792--Its immediate causes-- Declaration of Pillnitz made and withdrawn--Agitation of the Priests and Emigrants--War Policy of the Gironde--Provocations offered to France by the Powers--State of Central Europe in 1792--The Holy Roman Empire--Austria-- Rule of the Hapsburgs--The Reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II.--Policy of Leopold II.--Government and Foreign Policy of Francis II.--Prussia-- Government of Frederick William II.--Social Condition of Prussia--Secondary States of Germany--Ecclesiastical States--Free Cities--Knights--Weakness of Germany

CHAPTER II.

THE WAR, DOWN TO THE TREATIES OF BASLE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIRECTORY.

French and Austrian Armies on the Flemish Frontier--Prussia enters the War--Brunswick invades France--His Proclamation--Insurrection of Aug. 10 at Paris--Massacres of September--Character of the War--Brunswick, checked at Valmy, retreats--The War becomes a Crusade of France--Neighbours of France--Custine enters Mainz--Dumouriez conquers the Austrian Netherlands-- Nice and Savoy annexed--Decree of the Convention against all Governments-- Execution of Louis XVI.--War with England, followed by war with the Mediterranean States--Condition of England--English Parties, how affected by the Revolution--The Gironde and the Mountain--Austria recovers the Netherlands--The Allies invade France--La Vendée--Revolutionary System of 1793--Errors of the Allies--New French Commanders and Democratic Army--Victories of Jourdan, Hoche, and Pichegru--Prussia withdrawing from the War--Polish Affairs--Austria abandons the Netherlands--Treaties of Basle--France in 1795--Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire--Constitution of 1795--The Directory--Effect of the Revolution on the Spirit of Europe up to 1795

CHAPTER III.. Italian Campaigns: Treaty of Campo Formio.

ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS: TREATY OF CAMPO FORMIO.

Triple attack on Austria--Moreau, Jourdan--Bonaparte in Italy--Condition of the Italian States--Professions and real intentions of Bonaparte and the Directory--Battle of Montenotte--Armistice with Sardinia--Campaign in Lombardy--Treatment of the Pope, Naples, Tuscany--Siege of Mantua-- Castiglione--Moreau and Jourdan in Germany--Their retreat--Secret Treaty with Prussia--Negotiations with England--Cispadane Republic--Rise of the idea of Italian Independence--Battles of Arcola and Rivoli--Peace with the Pope at Tolentino--Venice--Preliminaries of Leoben--The French in Venice--The French take the Ionian Islands and give Venice to Austria--Genoa--Coup d'état of 17 Fructidor in Paris--Treaty of Campo Formio--Victories of England at Sea--Bonaparte's project against Egypt

CHAPTER IV.

FROM THE CONGRESS OF RASTADT TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSULATE.

Congress of Rastadt--The Rhenish Provinces ceded--Ecclesiastical States of Germany suppressed--French Intervention in Switzerland--Helvetic Republic--The French invade the Papal States--Roman Republic--Expedition to Egypt--Battle of the Nile--Coalition of 1798--Ferdinand of Naples enters Rome--Mack's defeats--French enter Naples--Parthenopean Republic--War with Austria and Russia--Battle of Stockach--Murder of the French Envoys at Rastadt--Campaign in Lombardy--Reign of Terror at Naples--Austrian designs upon Italy--Suvaroff and the Austrians--Campaign in Switzerland--Campaign in Holland--Bonaparte returns from Egypt--Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire-- Constitution of 1799--System of Bonaparte in France--Its effect on the influence of France abroad

CHAPTER V.. From Marengo to the Rupture of the Peace of Amiens.

FROM MARENGO TO THE RUPTURE OF THE PEACE OF AMIENS.

Overtures of Bonaparte to Austria and England--The War continues--Massena besieged in Genoa--Moreau invades Southern Germany--Bonaparte crosses the St. Bernard, and descends in the rear of the Austrians--Battle of Marengo--Austrians retire behind the Mincio--Treaty between England and Austria--Austria continues the War--Battle of Hohenlinden--Peace of Lunéville--War between England and the Northern Maritime League--Battle of Copenhagen--Murder of Paul--End of the Maritime War--English Army enters Egypt--French defeated at Alexandria--They capitulate at Cairo and Alexandria--Preliminaries of Peace between England and France signed at London, followed by Peace of Amiens--Pitt's Irish Policy and his retirement--Debates on the Peace--Aggressions of Bonaparte during the Continental Peace--Holland, Italy, Switzerland--Settlement of Germany under French and Russian influence--Suppression of Ecclesiastical States and Free Cities--Its effects--Stein--France under the Consulate--The Civil Code--The Concordat

CHAPTER VI.. The Empire, to the Peace of Presburg.

THE EMPIRE, TO THE PEACE OF PRESBURG.

England claims Malta--War renewed--Bonaparte occupies Hanover, and blockades the Elbe--Remonstrances of Prussia--Cadoudal's Plot--Murder of the Duke of Enghien--Napoleon Emperor--Coalition of 1805--Prussia holds aloof--State of Austria--Failure of Napoleon's Attempt to gain Naval Superiority in the Channel--Campaign in Western Germany-- Capitulation of Ulm--Trafalgar--Treaty of Potsdam between Prussia and the Allies--The French enter Vienna--Haugwitz sent to Napoleon with Prussian Ultimatum--Battle of Austerlitz--Haugwitz signs a Treaty of Alliance with Napoleon--Peace--Treaty of Presburg--End of the Holy Roman Empire--Naples given to Joseph Bonaparte--Battle of Maida--The Napoleonic Empire and Dynasty--Federation of the Rhine--State of Germany--Possibility of maintaining the Empire of 1806

CHAPTER VII.. Death of Pitt, to the Peace of Tilsit.

DEATH OF PITT, TO THE PEACE OF TILSIT.

Death of Pitt--Ministry of Fox and Grenville--Napoleon forces Prussia into war with England, and then offers Hanover to England--Prussia resolves on war with Napoleon--State of Prussia--Decline of the Army--Southern Germany with Napoleon--Austria neutral--England and Russia about to help Prussia, but not immediately--Campaign of 1806--Battles of Jena and Auerstädt--Ruin of the Prussian Army--Capitulation of Fortresses--Demands of Napoleon--The War continues--Berlin Decree--Exclusion of English goods from the Continent--Russia enters the war--Campaign in Poland and East Prussia--Eylau--Treaty of Bartenstein--Friedland--Interview at Tilsit--Alliance of Napoleon and Alexander--Secret Articles--English expedition to Denmark--The French enter Portugal--Prussia after the Peace of Tilsit--Stein's Edict of Emancipation--The Prussian Peasant--Reform of the Prussian Army, and creation of Municipalities--Stein's other projects of Reform, which are not carried out

CHAPTER VIII.. Spain, to the Fall of Saragossa.

SPAIN, TO THE FALL OF SARAGOSSA.

Spain in 1806--Napoleon uses the quarrel between Ferdinand and Godoy--He affects to be Ferdinand's Protector--Dupont's Army enters Spain--Murat in Spain--Charles abdicates--Ferdinand King--Savary brings Ferdinand to Bayonne--Napoleon makes both Charles and Ferdinand resign--Spirit of the Spanish Nation--Contrast with Germany--Rising of all Spain--The Notables at Bayonne--Campaign of 1808--Capitulation of Baylen--Wellesley lands in Portugal--Vimieiro--Convention of Cintra--Effect of the Spanish Rising on Europe--War Party in Prussia--Napoleon and Alexander at Erfurt--Stein resigns, and is proscribed--Napoleon in Spain--Spanish Misgovernment-- Campaign on the Ebro--Campaign of Sir John Moore--Corunna--Napoleon leaves Spain--Siege of Saragossa--Successes of the French

CHAPTER IX.

WAR OF 1809: THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE--SPAIN, TO THE BATTLE OF SALAMANCA.

Austria preparing for war--The war to be one on behalf of the German Nation--Patriotic movement in Prussia--Expected Insurrection in North Germany--Plans of Campaign--Austrian Manifesto to the Germans--Rising of the Tyrolese--Defeats of the Archduke Charles in Bavaria--French in Vienna--Attempts of Dörnberg and Schill--Battle of Aspern--Second passage of the Danube--Battle of Wagram--Armistice of Znaim--Austria waiting for Events--Wellesley in Spain--He gains the Battle of Talavera, but retreats--Expedition against Antwerp fails--Austria makes Peace--Treaty of Vienna--Real Effects of the War of 1809--Austria after 1809--Metternich-- Marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise--Severance of Napoleon and Alexander--Napoleon annexes the Papal States, Holland, Le Valais, and the North German Coast--The Napoleonic Empire: its benefits and wrongs--The Czar withdraws from Napoleon's Commercial System--War with Russia imminent--Wellington in Portugal; Lines of Torres Vedras; Massena's Campaign of 1810, and retreat--Soult in Andalusia--Wellington's Campaign of 1811--Capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz--Salamanca

CHAPTER X.. Russian Campaign, to the Treaty of Kalisch.

RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN, TO THE TREATY OF KALISCH.

War approaching between France and Russia--Policy of Prussia--Hardenberg's Ministry--Prussia forced into Alliance with Napoleon--Austrian Alliance-- Napoleon's Preparations--He enters Russia--Alexander and Bernadotte--Plan of Russians to fight a battle at Drissa frustrated--They retreat on Witepsk--Sufferings of the French--French enter Smolensko--Battle of Borodino--Evacuation of Moscow--Moscow fired--The Retreat from Moscow-- French at Smolensko--Advance of Russian Armies from North and South--Battle of Krasnoi--Passage of the Beresina--The French reach the Niemen--York's Convention with the Russians--The Czar and Stein--Russian Army enters Prussia--Stein raises East Prussia--Treaty of Kalisch--Prussia declares War--Enthusiasm of the Nation--Idea of German Unity--The Landwehr

CHAPTER XI.. War of Liberation, to the Peace of Paris.

WAR OF LIBERATION, TO THE PEACE OF PARIS.

The War of Liberation--Blücher crosses the Elbe--Battle of Lützen--The Allies retreat to Silesia--Battle of Bautzen--Armistice--Napoleon intends to intimidate Austria--Mistaken as to the Forces of Austria--Metternich's Policy--Treaty of Reichenbach--Austria offers its Mediation--Congress of Prague--Austria enters the War--Armies and Plans of Napoleon and the Allies--Campaign of August--Battles of Dresden, Grosbeeren, the Katzbach, and Kulm--Effect of these Actions--Battle of Dennewitz--German Policy of Austria favourable to the Princes of the Rhenish Confederacy--Frustrated hopes of German Unity--Battle of Leipzig--The Allies reach the Rhine-- Offers of Peace at Frankfort--Plan of Invasion of France--Backwardness of Austria--The Allies enter France--Campaign of 1814--Congress of Châtillon--Napoleon moves to the rear of the Allies--The Allies advance on Paris--Capitulation of Paris--Entry of the Allies--Dethronement of Napoleon--Restoration of the Bourbons--The Charta--Treaty of Paris-- Territorial effects of the War, 1792-1814--Every Power except France had gained--France relatively weaker in Europe--Summary of the permanent effects of this period on Europe

END OF VOL. I. (ORIGINAL EDITION).

CHAPTER XII.. The Restoration.

THE RESTORATION.

The Restoration of 1814--Norway--Naples--Westphalia--Spain--The Spanish Constitution overthrown: victory of the clergy--Restoration in France--The Charta--Encroachments of the nobles and clergy--Growing hostility to the Bourbons--Congress of Vienna--Talleyrand and the Four Powers--The Polish question--The Saxon question--Theory of Legitimacy--Secret alliance against Russia and Prussia--Compromise--The Rhenish Provinces--Napoleon leaves Elba and lands in France--His declarations--Napoleon at Grenoble, at Lyons, at Paris--The Congress of Vienna unites Europe against France--Murat's action in Italy--The Acte Additionnel--The Champ de Mai--Napoleon takes up the offensive--Battles of Ligny, Quatre Bras, Waterloo--Affairs at Paris--Napoleon sent to St. Helena--Wellington and Fouché--Arguments on the proposed cession of French territory--Treaty of Holy Alliance--Second Treaty of Paris--Conclusion of the work of the Congress of Vienna--Federation of Germany--Estimate of the Congress of Vienna and of the Treaties of 1815--The Slave Trade

CHAPTER XIII.. The Progress of Reaction.

THE PROGRESS OF REACTION.

Concert of Europe after 1815--Spirit of the Foreign Policy of Alexander, of Metternich, and of the English Ministry--Metternich's action in Italy, England's in Sicily and Spain--The Reaction in France--Richelieu and the New Chamber--Execution of Ney--Imprisonments and persecutions--Conduct of the Ultra-Royalists in Parliament--Contests on the Electoral Bill and the Budget--The Chamber prorogued--Affair of Grenoble--Dissolution of the Chamber--Electoral Law and Financial Settlement of 1817--Character of the first years of peace in Europe generally--Promise of a Constitution in Prussia--Hardenberg opposed by the partisans of autocracy and privilege--Schmalz' Pamphlet--Delay of Constitutional Reform in Germany at large--The Wartburg Festival--Progress of Reaction--The Czar now inclines to repression--Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle--Evacuation of France--Growing influence of Metternich in Europe--His action on Prussia--Murder of Kotzebue--The Carlsbad Conference and measures of repression in Germany--Richelieu and Decazes--Murder of the Duke of Berry--Progress of the reaction in France--General causes of the victory of reaction in Europe

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