A History of China., [3d Ed. Rev. and Enl.]

Chapter Vi: the Han Dynasty (206 B.c.-a.d. 220)

1 Development of the gentry-state 71 2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the Han empire. Incorporation of South China 75 3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry 77 4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire 86 5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty 90 6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows" 93 7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty 96 8 Hsiung-nu policy 97 9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans". Collapse of the Han dynasty 99 10 Literature and Art 103

Chapter Vii: the Epoch of the First Division

OF CHINA (A.D. 220-580)

(A) The three kingdoms (A.D. 220-265)

1 Social, intellectual, and economic problems during the period of the first division 107 2 Status of the two southern Kingdoms 109 3 The northern State of Wei 113

(B) The Western Chin dynasty (265-317)

1 Internal situation in the Chin empire 115 2 Effect on the frontier peoples 116 3 Struggles for the throne 119 4 Migration of Chinese 120 5 Victory of the Huns. The Hun Han dynasty (later renamed the Earlier Chao dynasty) 121

(C) The alien empires in North China, down to the Toba (A.D. 317-385)

1 The Later Chao dynasty in eastern North China (Hun; 329-352) 123 2 Earlier Yen dynasty in the north-east (proto-Mongol; 352-370), and the Earlier Ch'in dynasty in all north China (Tibetan; 351-394) 126 3 The fragmentation of north China 128 4 Sociological analysis of the two great alien empires 131 5 Sociological analysis of the petty States 132 6 Spread of Buddhism 133

(D) The Toba empire in North China (A.D. 385-550)

1 The rise of the Toba State 136 2 The Hun kingdom of the Hsia (407-431) 139 3 Rise of the Toba to a great power 139 4 Economic and social conditions 142 5 Victory and retreat of Buddhism 145

(E) Succession States of the Toba (A.D. 550-580): Northern Ch'i dynasty, Northern Chou dynasty

1 Reasons for the splitting of the Toba empire 148 2 Appearance of the (Goek) Turks 149 3 The Northern Ch'i dynasty; the Northern Chou dynasty 150

(F) The southern empires

1 Economic and social situation in the south 152 2 Struggles between cliques under the Eastern Chin dynasty (A.D. 317-419) 155 3 The Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478) and the Southern Ch'i dynasty (A.D. 479-501) 159 4 The Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-556) 161 5 The Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-588) and its ending by the Sui 162 6 Cultural achievements of the south 163

Chapter Viii: the Empires of the Sui and

THE T'ANG

(A) The Sui dynasty (A.D. 580-618)

1 Internal situation in the newly unified empire 166 2 Relations with Turks and with Korea 169 3 Reasons for collapse 170

(B) The Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-906)

1 Reforms and decentralization 172 2 Turkish policy 176 3 Conquest of Turkestan and Korea. Summit of power 177 4 The reign of the empress Wu: Buddhism and capitalism 179 5 Second blossoming of T'ang culture 182 6 Revolt of a military governor 184 7 The role of the Uighurs. Confiscation of the capital of the monasteries 186 8 First successful peasant revolt. Collapse of the empire 189

MODERN TIMES

Chapter Ix: the Epoch of the Second

DIVISION OF CHINA

(A) The period of the Five Dynasties (906-960)

1 Beginning of a new epoch 195 2 Political situation in the tenth century 199 3 Monopolistic trade in South China. Printing and paper money in the north 200 4 Political history of the Five Dynasties 202

(B) Period of Moderate Absolutism

(1) The Northern Sung dynasty

1 Southward expansion 208 2 Administration and army. Inflation 210 3 Reforms and Welfare schemes 215 4 Cultural situation (philosophy, religion, literature, painting) 217 5 Military collapse 221

(2) The Liao (Kitan) dynasty in the north (937-1125)

1 Sociological structure. Claim to the Chinese imperial throne 222 2 The State of the Kara-Kitai 223

(3) The Hsi-Hsia State in the north (1038-1227)

1 Continuation of Turkish traditions 224

(4) The empire of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279)

1 Foundation 225 2 Internal situation 226 3 Cultural situation; reasons for the collapse 227

(5) The empire of the Juchen in the north (1115-1234)

1 Rapid expansion from northern Korea to the Yangtze 229 2 United front of all Chinese 229 3 Start of the Mongol empire 230

Chapter X: the Period of Absolutism

(A) The Mongol Epoch (1280-1368)

1 Beginning of new foreign rules 232 2 "Nationality legislation" 233 3 Military position 234 4 Social situation 235 5 Popular risings: National rising 238 6 Cultural 241

(B) The Ming Epoch (1368-1644)

1 Start. National feeling 243 2 Wars against Mongols and Japanese 244 3 Social legislation within the existing order 246 4 Colonization and agricultural developments 248 5 Commercial and industrial developments 250 6 Growth of the small gentry 252 7 Literature, art, crafts 253 8 Politics at court 256 9 Navy. Southward expansion 258 10 Struggles between cliques 259 11 Risings 262 12 Machiavellism 263 13 Foreign relations in the sixteenth century 264 14 External and internal perils 266

(C) The Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911)

1 Installation of the Manchus 270 2 Decline in the eighteenth century 272 3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty 277 4 Culture 279 5 Relations with the outer world 282 6 Decline; revolts 284 7 European Imperialism in the Far East 285 8 Risings in Turkestan and within China: the T'ai P'ing Rebellion 288 9 Collision with Japan; further Capitulations 294 10 Russia in Manchuria 296 11 Reform and reaction: The Boxer Rising 296 12 End of the dynasty 299

Chapter Xi: the Republic (1912-1948)

1 Social and intellectual position 303 2 First period of the Republic: The warlords 309 3 Second period of the Republic: Nationalist China 314 4 The Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945) 317

Chapter Xii: Present-Day China

1 The growth of communism 320 2 Nationalist China in Taiwan 323 3 Communist China 327

Notes and References 335

Index 355

ILLUSTRATIONS

1 Painted pottery from Kansu: Neolithic. Facing page 48 In the collection of the Museum fuer Voelkerkunde, Berlin.

2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang. 49 From G. Ecke: Fruehe chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Oskar Trautmann, Peking 1939 plate 3.

3 Bronze plaque representing two horses fighting each other. Ordos region, animal style. 64 From V. Griessmaier: Sammlung Baron Eduard von der Heydt, Vienna 1936, illustration No. 6.

4 Hunting scene: detail from the reliefs in the tombs at Wu-liang-tz'u. 64 From a print in the author's possession.

5 Part of the "Great Wall". 65 Photo Eberhard.

6 Sun Ch'uean, ruler of Wu. 144 From a painting by Yen Li-pen (c. 640-680).

7 General view of the Buddhist cave-temples of Yuen-kang. In the foreground, the present village; in the background the rampart. 145 Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

8 Detail from the Buddhist cave-reliefs of Lungmen. 160 From a print in the author's possession.

9 Statue of Mi-lo (Maitreya, the next future Buddha), in the "Great Buddha Temple" at Chengting (Hopei). 161 Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

10 Ladies of the Court: Clay models which accompanied the dead person to the grave. T'ang period. 208 In the collection of the Museum fuer Voelkerkunde, Berlin.

11 Distinguished founder: a temple banner found at Khotcho, Turkestan. 209 Museum fuer Voelkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1B 4524, illustration B 408.

12 Ancient tiled pagoda at Chengting (Hopei). 224 Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

13 Horse-training. Painting by Li Lung-mien. Late Sung period. 225 Manchu Royal House Collection.

14 Aborigines of South China, of the "Black Miao" tribe, at a festival. China-ink drawing of the eighteenth century. 272 Collection of the Museum fuer Voelkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1D 8756, 68.

15 Pavilion on the "Coal Hill" at Peking, in which the last Ming emperor committed suicide. 273 Photo Eberhard.

16 The imperial summer palace of the Manchu rulers, at Jehol. 288 Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

17 Tower on the city wall of Peking. 289 Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

MAPS

1 Regions of the principal local cultures in prehistoric times 13

2 The principal feudal States in the feudal epoch (roughly 722-481 B.C.) 39

3 China in the struggle with the Huns or Hsiung-nu (roughly 128-100 B.C.) 87

4 The Toba empire (about A.D. 500) 141

5 The T'ang realm (about A.D. 750) 171

6 The State of the Later T'ang dynasty (923-935) 205

INTRODUCTION

There are indeed enough Histories of China already: why yet another one? Because the time has come for new departures; because we need to clear away the false notions with which the general public is constantly being fed by one author after another; because from time to time syntheses become necessary for the presentation of the stage reached by research.

Histories of China fall, with few exceptions, into one or the other of two groups, pro-Chinese and anti-Chinese: the latter used to predominate, but today the former type is much more frequently found. We have no desire to show that China's history is the most glorious or her civilization the oldest in the world. A claim to the longest history does not establish the greatness of a civilization; the importance of a civilization becomes apparent in its achievements. A thousand years ago China's civilization towered over those of the peoples of Europe. Today the West is leading; tomorrow China may lead again. We need to realize how China became what she is, and to note the paths pursued by the Chinese in human thought and action. The lives of emperors, the great battles, this or the other famous deed, matter less to us than the discovery of the great forces that underlie these features and govern the human element. Only when we have knowledge of those forces and counter-forces can we realize the significance of the great personalities who have emerged in China; and only then will the history of China become intelligible even to those who have little knowledge of the Far East and can make nothing of a mere enumeration of dynasties and campaigns.

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