England Under the Tudors

CHAPTER I

HENRY VII (i), 1485-1492-THE NEW DYNASTY 1485. Henry's Title to the Crown-- Measures to strengthen the Title--1486. Marriage--The King and his Advisers --Henry's enemies--1487. Lambert Simnel--The State of Europe--France and Brittany--1488. Henry intervenes cautiously--England and Spain--1489. Preparations for war with France--Spanish treaty of Medina del Campo--The Allies inert--1490. Object of Henry's Foreign Policy--1491. Apparent Defeat --1492. Henry's bellicose Attitude--Treaty of Etaples.

CHAPTER II

HENRY VII (ii), 1492-1499-PERKIN WARBECK Ireland; 1485--1487-1492. The Earl of Kildare--1491. Perkin Warbeck's Appearance--Riddle of his imposture-- 1492-5. Perkin and Margaret of Burgundy--Diplomatic Intrigues--Ireland: Poynings, 1494-6--1495. Survey of the Situation--Perkin attempts Invasion --Success of Henry's Diplomacy--1496. Perkin and the King of Scots--A Scottish Incursion--1497. The Cornish rising--Its suppression--Perkin's final effort and failure--The Scottish Truce--The End of Perkin Warbeck: 1497-9--1498. The situation.

CHAPTER III

HENRY VII (iii), 1498-1509-THE DYNASTY ASSURED Scotland and England-- Henry's Scottish Policy--France and Scotland--Relations in 1498--Marriage Negotiations; 1498-1503--Marriage of James IV. and Margaret, 1503--Spain and England; Marriage Negotiations, 1488-1499--France, 1499--Spain; Marriage Negotiations, 1499-1501--1501; the Spanish Marriage--1502. New Marriage Schemes--1504. The Papal Dispensation--The Earl of Suffolk; 1499-1505--1505. Henry's Position--Schemes for Re-marriage--1506: The Archduke Philip in England--Philip's Death--1507-8. Matrimonial Projects --The League of Cambrai--Wolsey--1509. Death of Henry.

CHAPTER IV

HENRY VII (iv), 1485-1509--ASPECTS OF THE REIGN 1485; Henry's Position --Studied Legality--Policy of Lenity--Repression of the Nobles--The Star-Chamber--Henry's Use of Parliament--Financial Exactions--Sources of Revenue--Henry's Economics--Trade Theories--Commercial Policy--The Netherlands Trade--The Hansa--The Navigation Acts--Voyages of Discovery-- The Rural Revolution--The Church--Henry and Rome--Learning and Letters-- Appreciation.

CHAPTER V

HENRY VIII (i), 1509-1527--EGO ET REX MEUS Europe in 1509--England's Position--The New King--Inauguration of the reign--Henry and the Powers-- 1512. Dorset's Expedition--Rise of Wolsey--1513. The French War--Scotland (1499-1513)--The Flodden Campaign--The Battle--Its Effect--Recovery of English Prestige--1514. Foreign Intrigues--The French Alliance and Marriage --1515. Francis I.--Marignano--1516-7. European changes--1518-9. Wolsey's Success--1519. Charles V.--The Imperial Election--1520. Wolsey's Triumph-- Rival Policies--Field of the Cloth of Gold--Wolsey's Aims--Charles V. and Francis I.--Scotland: 1513-1520--1520-1. Affairs Abroad--1521. Buckingham --Wolsey's Diplomacy--1522. A Papal Election--War with France--Scotland-- 1523. Progress of the War--Election of Clement VII.--1524. Wolsey's difficulties--Intrigues in Scotland--1525. Pavia--The Amicable Loan--A Diplomatic struggle--1526-7. Wolsey's success--A new Factor.

CHAPTER VI

HENRY VIII (ii), 1509-1532--BIRTH OF THE REFORMATION The Reformation in England--Its true Character--Religious Decadence--The Scholar- Reformers--Ecclesiastical Demoralisation--Monastic Corruption--The Proofs--Corruption of Doctrine--Evidence from Colet and More--Later Evidence--Dean Colet--His Sermon: 1512--Erasmus--The Utopia: 1516-- Exaggerated attacks--Clerical Privileges--Tentative Reforms--The Educational Movement--Wolsey and the Reformation--The Lutheran Revolt: 1517--Luther's Defiance--The Diet of Worms; 1521--The German Peasants' Revolt; 1524--Its Effect in England--1525. The Empire and the Papacy--The Sack of Rome, 1527--Diet of Augsburg, 1530-The Swiss Reformers; 1520-1530--English Heretics Abroad--Contrasted Aims.

CHAPTER VII

HENRY VIII (iii), 1527-1529--THE FALL OF WOLSEY "The King's Affair"--Story of the Marriage--Anne Boleyn--1527. The King Prepares--Theoretical Excuses--The Need of an Heir--The Plea of Invalidity--Conjunction of Incentives--The Orleans Betrothal--Conclusions--The first Plan--The second Plan--Knight's Mission--Its Failure--The Pope and the Cardinal--1528. Gardiner's Mission--Wolsey's Critical Position--Campeggio and Wolsey-- Henry's Attitude--1529. The Trial--The Storm Gathers--The Storm Breaks-- Wolsey's fall--1530. Wolsey's Death--His Achievement--Appreciation of Wolsey.

CHAPTER VIII

HENRY VIII (iv), 1529-1533--THE BREACH WITH ROME 1529. No Revolt Yet-- Growth of Anti-clericalism--Thomas Cranmer--Appeal to the Universities --The New Parliament--Thomas Cromwell--Pope, Clergy, and King--Double Campaign Opens--1530. Answer of Universities--Preoccupation of the Clergy--Menace of Praemunire--1531. "Only Supreme Head"--Proceedings in Parliament--1532. Parliament--Supplication against the Ordinaries-- Resistance of Clergy--"Submission of the Clergy"--Mortmain, Benefit of Clergy, and Annates--The Powers and the Divorce--The Turn of the Year-- 1533. The Crisis--Restraint of Appeals--Cranmer Archbishop--The Decisive Breach.

CHAPTER IX

HENRY VIII (v), 1533-1540--MALLEUS MONACHORUM 1533. Ecclesiastical Parties --Pope or King?--1534. Confirmatory Acts--The Pope's Last Word--The Nun of Kent--The Act of Succession--The Oath Refused--The "Bishop of Rome"-- Parliament--Treasons Act--1529-1534: The New Policy--Thomas Cromwell--1535. More and Fisher--Cromwell Vicar--General--The German Lutherans--Overtures-- Visitation of the Monasteries--1536. Suppression of Lesser Houses--The Evidence--The Black Book--The Consequent Commission--The Policy--Anne Boleyn Threatened--Her Condemnation and Death--The Succession--Punishment of Heresy--The Progressive Movement--The Ten Articles--The Lincolnshire Rising--The Pilgrimage of Grace--Aske Beguiled--1537. Suppression of the Rising--Turned to Account--Scotland, 1533-6--1536-7. Naval Measures--1537. An Heir--1538. Diplomatic Moves--The Exeter Conspiracy--1539. Cromwell Strikes--Menace of Invasion--The King and Lutheranism--The Six Articles-- Final Suppression of Monasteries--Royal Proclamations Act--Anne of Cleves-- 1540. The Marriage--Fall of Cromwell.

CHAPTER X

HENRY VIII (vi), 1540-1547--HENRY'S LAST YEARS 1540. Katharine Howard--The King his own Minister--England and the Powers--Scotland and England; 1541-- Cardinal Beton--1542--Solway Moss--1543. Henry's Scottish Policy--Alliance with Charles V.--French War--1544. Domestic Affairs--Intrigues in Scotland --Sack of Edinburgh--French War--Peace of Crepy--1545. Ancram Moor--A French Armada--1546. Peace concluded--1532-1549. Europe--Lutherans and the Papacy--Conference of Ratisbon-Council of Trent: first stages-- Death of Luther-Charles and the League of Schmalkald--The Jesuit Order-- Calvin--England: the Ecclesiastical Revolution--Progressives and Reactionaries--1543. The King's Book-1546. Surrey--1547. Death of Henry.

CHAPTER XI. Henry Viii (vii), 1509-1547--Aspects of Henry's Reign _ireland_:

HENRY VIII (vii), 1509-1547--ASPECTS OF HENRY'S REIGN Ireland: 1509-1520--Surrey in Ireland, 1520--Irish Policy, 1520-1534--Fitzgerald's Revolt--1535-1540: Lord Leonard Grey--1540: St. Leger--"King of Ireland"-- England: Wolsey's work--The Army--The Navy--The New World-- Absolutism--The Parliamentary Sanction--Depression of the Nobles-- Parliament and the Purse--Finance--The Land--Learning and Letters--The Utopia--Surrey and Wyatt--Appreciation of Henry VIII.: Morals and Character--Abilities and Achievement--Dominant Personality-- Conclusions.

CHAPTER XII

EDWARD VI (i), 1547-1549--THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET 1547. The New Government-- Relations with France and Scotland--with Charles V.--Somerset's Scottish Policy--Pinkie--The Advanced Reformers--Benevolent Legislation-- Ecclesiastical Legislation--1548. Progress of the Reformation--Somerset's Ideas--The French in Scotland--The Augsburg Interim--Parliament--1549. A New Liturgy--The Treason of the Lord Admiral: 1547-9--1549--Troubles in the Provinces--The Western Rising--Ket's Insurrection--The Protector's Attitude--The Council attacks him--His Fall--Ireland: St. Leger and Bellingham.

CHAPTER XIII

EDWARD VI (ii), 1549-1553--THE DUDLEY ASCENDANCY 1549. Foreign Relations-- State of England--1550. Terms with France--Protestant zeal of Warwick-- Treasons Act--Protestant Fanaticism-1551. The Council and Charles V.--His Difficulties--Groups among the Reformers--Somerset--His final overthrow-- 1552. Execution of Somerset--Pacification of Passau--English Neutrality-- The Reformation: its Limits hitherto--Revision of the Liturgy-- Nonconformity--Parliament--1553. A New Parliament--Northumberland's Programme--Plot to change the Succession--Adhesion of King and Council-- Death of Edward VI.--Willoughby and Chancellor.

CHAPTER XIV

MARY (i), 1553-1555-THE SPANISH MARRIAGE The Marian Tragedies--1553. Proclamation of Queen Jane--The People support Mary--Collapse of the Plot-- Mary's Leniency--Cause of the Popular Loyalty--Problems: Marriage and the Reformation--Possible Claimants--Moderate Reaction--Proposed Spanish Match --Parliament: Repeal of Edward's Legislation--1554. Wyatt's Rebellion and the Lady Elizabeth--Subsequent Severities--The Marriage Treaty-Pole, Renard, and Gardiner--Public Tension--Parliament; Reconciliation with Rome --Reaction consummated, 1555.

CHAPTER XV

MARY (ii), 1555-1558-THE PERSECUTION Mary's early Policy--The Persecution-- Who was Responsible?--Comparison with other Persecutions--Some Characteristic Features--1555. The First Martyrs--Trial of Cranmer--Ridley and Latimer--Fate of Cranmer--His Record and Character--Policy of Philip-- Paul IV.--Mary disappointed of an Heir--A New Parliament--Gardiner's Death and Character--Mary's Difficulties--1556. The Dudley Conspiracy--Foreign Complications--1557. War with France--1558. Loss of Calais--National Depression--Mary's Death and Character.

CHAPTER XVI. Elizabeth (i), 1558-1561-a Passage Perilous

ELIZABETH (i), 1558-1561-A PASSAGE PERILOUS

1558. Accession--Mary Stewart's Claim--Strength of Elizabeth's Position-- Sir William Cecil--Finance--Philip II. and Elizabeth's Marriage--The Religious Question--A Protestant Policy--1559. Parliament: Act of Supremacy--The Prayer-Book--France and Peace--State of Scotland--Arran and Elizabeth--The Archduke Charles--Wynter in the Forth--1560. Difficulties of France--Vacillations of Elizabeth--Siege of Leith--Treaty of Edinburgh-- Elizabeth's Methods--The Dudley Imbroglio--The Huguenots--The Pope--1561. Return of Mary to Scotland.

CHAPTER XVII

ELIZABETH (ii), 1561-1568-QUEENS AND SUITORS 1561. The Situation--Council of Trent--France; State of Parties--1561-8. France: Catholics and Huguenots --The Netherlands: Philip's Policy--Prelude to War--1561. The Queens' suitors--1562. Mary in Scotland--1562-3. Elizabeth and the Huguenots--The English Succession-1564. Darnley and Others--1565. The Darnley Marriage-- Mary and Murray--1566. The Murder of Rizzio--1567. Kirk o' Field--The Bothwell Marriage--Mary at Loch Leven--Murray Regent--1568. Langside, and the Flight to England--1562-8. Protestantism of Elizabeth's Government-- Religious Parties--1566-7. Parliament and the Queen's Marriage--The Queen and the Archduke.

CHAPTER XVIII

ELIZABETH (iii), 1568-1572--THE CATHOLIC CHALLENGE 1568. Mary in England--A Commission of Enquiry--Proceedings at York--Attitude of Philip--The Commission at Westminster--Comment on the Enquiry--Seizure of Spanish Treasure--1569. The Incident passed over--The Northern Rebellion--1570. Murder of Murray--The Bull of Deposition--The Anjou Match--1570-1. The Ridolfi Plot--1571. Parliament--Collapse of the Anjou Match--The Ridolfi Plot Develops--1572. Parliament and Mary Stewart--Lepanto--The Netherlands Revolt--The Alençon Match--St. Bartholomew.

CHAPTER XIX

ELIZABETH (iv), 1572-1578--VARIUM ET MUTABILE Elizabeth's Diplomacy--The Queen's Subjects--Development of Protestantism--1572. Katharine de Medici --The Aim of Elizabeth--England and the Massacre--Spain seeks Amity--1573. A Spanish Alliance--Scotland: End of the Marian Party--The Netherlands, France, and Spain--The Netherlands, England, and Spain--1574. Amicable Relations of England and Spain--1575. A Deadlock--1576. Attitude of the Nation--The Queen evades War--Alençon and the Huguenots--The Netherlands and Don John--Elizabeth's Attitude--1577. The Political Kaleidoscope--The Archduke Matthias--1578. Mendoza--Orange and Alençon--Death of Don John-- NOTE: The Portuguese Succession.

CHAPTER XX

ELIZABETH (v), 1558-1578--IRISH AND ENGLISH 1549-58--1558. Shan O'Neill-- The Antrim Scots--1560-1. Shan and the Government--1562. Shan in England-- 1563-5. Shan's supremacy in Ulster recognised--1566. Sir Henry Sidney Deputy--Overthrow of O'Neill--Catholicism in Irish Politics--1568. The Colonising of Munster--1569. Insurrection in Munster--Ireland and Philip-- Experimental Presidencies--1573-4. Essex in Ulster--1576-8. Sidney's second Deputyship.

CHAPTER XXI

ELIZABETH (vi), 1578-1583--THE PAPAL ATTACK 1579. The Union of Utrecht-- 1578. The Matrimonial Juggle--Alençon's wooing--1579. Popular Hostility to the Match--Loyalty to Elizabeth--Yea and Nay--The Papal Plan of Campaign-- 1580. Philip annexes Portugal--Ireland: 1579; the Desmond Rising-- 1580: Fire and Sword--Development of the Rebellion--Smerwick: and after-- Scotland: 1579-1581--England: 1580--The Jesuit Mission-- Walsingham at Work--1581. An Anti-papal Parliament--Alençon redivivus--His visit to England--1582. Alençon in the Netherlands--1583. Exit Alençon--Scotland.

CHAPTER XXII

ELIZABETH (vii), 1583-1587-THE END OF QUEEN MARY 1583. Throgmorton's Conspiracy--Catholics abroad sanguine--Division in their Counsels--The Plot discovered--1584. Assassination of Orange--The "Association"--1585. Its Ratification--France: The Holy League--Elizabeth's agreement with the States--Drake's Cartagena Raid--Elizabeth's Intrigues-1586. Leicester in the Netherlands--The Trapping of Mary--Babington's Plot--Trial of the Queen of Scots--Elizabeth and Mary--1587. Execution of Mary.

CHAPTER XXIII

ELIZABETH (viii), 1558-1587-THE SEAMEN The New World--The English Marine before Elizabeth--The Royal Navy--Privateering--"Piracy"--Reprisal--The Explorers--Spain in America--John Hawkins, 1562-6--San Juan d'Ulloa, 1567-- Francis Drake--Darien Expedition, 1572--Oxenham, 1575--Drake's Great Voyage: 1577--Drake in the Pacific, 1578--in the North Pacific, 1579-- his Return, 1580--Various Voyages: 1576-1587--Raleigh--Humphrey Gilbert--Virginia.

CHAPTER XXIV

ELIZABETH (ix), 1587-1588-THE ARMADA 1587. Results of Mary's Death-- Attitude of Philip--Attitude of Elizabeth--The situation--Drake's Cadiz Expedition--Negotiations with Parma--Elizabeth's Diplomacy--French Affairs --Preparations for the Armada--1588. Plans of Campaign--Forces of the Antagonists--The New Tactics--Defective Arrangements--The Land Forces--May to July--The Fleets off Plymouth--The Fight off Portland--The Fight off the Isle of Wight--Effect on the Fleets--The Armada at Calais--The Battle off Gravelines--Flight and Ruin of the Armada.

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