Part 56

USES. “Soap-root” (with Saponin, forming a lather in water) from Saponaria officinalis was formerly officinal, and Gypsophila struthium. The seeds of Agrostemma githago are said to be poisonous.--The following are ornamental plants: species of Pinks (D. caryophyllus, garden Pink, often with double flowers; D. barbatus, plumarius, etc.). Lychnis, Gypsophila, Silene, Cerastium (C. tomentosum as edging for borders), Saponaria officinalis (often coronate).--Spergula arvensis is sometimes cultivated.

Order 2. =Amarantaceæ.= The flowers are essentially the same as in the Chenopodiaceæ and the extremely reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. 361 F); they are regular, hypogynous, generally ☿, have 5 free (rarely slightly united) perianth-leaves; in front of these 5 stamens, which are often united at their base into a shorter or longer tube and have stipule-like teeth between them (the division Gomphreneæ has 2-locular anthers, each of which opens longitudinally); and a 2–3 carpellate gynœceum with one loculus and most frequently one, more rarely several ovules; the fruit is a nut, more rarely (in Celosia, Amarantus, Gomphrena) a capsule, dehiscing irregularly, or like a pyxidium. The characters which especially separate them from the allied orders are found in the perianth. The perianth-leaves are not green and herbaceous, but membranous, dry, and often coloured; they are frequently produced into a bristle or awn; they have also both subtending floral-leaves and 2 large bracteoles similar to the perianth; all these dry leaves persist without alteration after the withering of the flower.--The flowers are without scent. They are arranged in spike- or capitulum-like inflorescences; sometimes placed singly, sometimes aggregated in the panicle-like inflorescences; in others, on the contrary, in dichasia. The majority are herbs, some are shrubs. The leaves are scattered, or opposite, but always simple and without stipules; some are smooth, others hairy.

450 species; especially in the Tropics, principally S. Am. and E. Ind.: few are found outside these countries.--Only a few are used; some, chiefly E. Indian species, are cultivated as ornamental plants: Amaranthus (Fox-tail); Gomphrena globosa; Celosia cristata (Cock’s-comb) remarkable for its fasciated inflorescence; Alternanthera. Some are employed as culinary plants in the Tropics, and in a few of the E. Indian species the seeds are farinaceous, and used for food.

Order 3. =Chenopodiaceæ.= Generally herbaceous plants like the Caryophyllaceæ, but the leaves are arranged spirally (except Salicornia), and are simple, exstipulate; they are generally fleshy and like the stem “mealy,” that is, covered with small hairs, whose large spherical terminal cell readily falls away; otherwise they are seldom hairy. The inflorescences are generally flower-clusters borne in panicles. Bracteoles generally absent. Flowers generally unisexual: with the single exception of Beta the flowers are hypogynous; they are regular, small and inconspicuous, with single, green, 5-leaved, but more or less united perianth; 5 stamens opposite the perianth, and a 2–5-carpellate, unilocular ovary with 1 basal, curved ovule; but in some genera the number of the perianth-leaves and stamens is reduced to 3–2–1–0. The fruit is generally a nut,--thus this flower and fruit are the same as in the reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. 361 F). The seed is similar to that generally found in the family (for exceptions see the genera).

The floral diagram most frequently present is the same as in Fig. 361 F. There is no indication of corolla or of corolla-stamens, which may be supposed to have belonged to the plant, but which are now entirely and completely suppressed. This order appears to have been an offshoot from the Caryophyllaceæ.--The perianth persists after the withering of the flower, and envelopes the nut; it is very variable, and, together with the position of the seed, the form of the embryo, the sex of the flowers, etc., gives the characters of the genera.

=1.= CHENOPODIEÆ, GOOSEFOOT GROUP (Fig. 365), has ☿ (or polygamous) flowers, with regular 5-parted perianth (C); the embryo is ring-like (H). The leaves have the ordinary flat forms.--Chenopodium (Goosefoot). The flower is hypogynous, and the fruit (which is compressed) perfectly free; Mulberry-like collections of fruits are formed in some species (sub-genus Blitum) by the perianth becoming finally fleshy and coloured.--Beta (Beet, Mangold, Fig. 365) differs from all genera in the perianth, which finally becomes cartilaginous, being epigynous (D). Small, most frequently 2–3-flowered clusters without bracteoles, situated in a long, interrupted axis (A, B); the flowers and fruits in each cluster are more or less united individually, and fall off together--they are commonly known as seeds (E, F). The seed lies horizontally.--Hablitzia (H. tamnoides).

=2.= SALSOLEÆ, SALTWORT GROUP, has cylindrical or semi-cylindrical leaves. Perianth as in the preceding group; the fruit is most frequently compressed. The two first mentioned genera differ from most of the others in the order in having a spirally-coiled, and not a ring-like embryo, so that the endosperm is slight or wanting (Fig. 366). These plants are sometimes placed as a group by themselves, SPIROLOBEÆ--in contradistinction to which the others are termed CYCLOLOBEÆ.--Salsola (Saltwort); leaves subulate, with spiny tips; the flowers have 2 spinous bracteoles: during the ripening of the fruit a tough leathery wing is developed transversely to the back of the perianth.--~Chenopodina deviates from Chenopodium chiefly in the embryo and want of endosperm.--Kochia has a somewhat similar perianth to Salsola, but a ring-like embryo; it differs from the others in being hairy.~

=3.= SALICORNIEÆ, GLASSWORT GROUP. Salicornia (Glasswort) has a very different appearance. The stems are succulent, jointed, and almost leafless; the leaves opposite, very small, sheath-like and connate; there is a depression in the axil of each leaf, in which a small 3-flowered dichasium without bracteoles is sunk; the flowers have a trimerous perianth, 1–2 stamens and 1 carpel. No endosperm. S. herbacea on clayey beaches.

=4.= ATRIPLICEÆ. This group has most frequently unisexual flowers; the ♂-flower has a 4–5 partite perianth, but the ♀-flower differs from it. Atriplex is monœcious or polygamous, the ♀-flower is naked, but has 2 large, herbaceous bracteoles which expand during the ripening of the fruit, and often become warted and fringed, enveloping the compressed nut. ~The section Dichospermum has two kinds of ♀-flowers, one like those just described, the other similar to the Chenopodium-flowers, which have been deprived of their stamens, and the fruits of which are depressed, not pressed together from the sides; some (e.g. A. hortensis) have even three kinds of nuts. All the flowers of Atriplex, which present vertical fruits, are accessory shoots, which stand beneath the ordinary flower-clusters, a rather singular relation.~--Spinacia (Spinach) is diœcious; ♂-flower: perianth, 4 (-5); stamens, 4 (-5); ♀-flower: tubular, 2–4-partite perianth, hardening during the ripening of the fruit, and uniting with the compressed nut; in S. oleracea, it also forms thorns; 4 long stigmas.--Halimus has the 2 long bracteoles almost entirely united and ultimately adhering firmly to the fruit.

=5.= BASELLEÆ. A somewhat exceptional group with more or less perigynous flowers and 2 bracteoles. Basella, Boussingaultia, Ullucus. The perianth is sepaloid; ovary 1-ovuled. In Basella the perianth is fleshy, enveloping the nut, and the cotyledons are so rolled together that a tranverse cut divides them in two places (as in Spirolobeæ). Herbaceous climbing plants.

POLLINATION. Wind-and self-pollination, as far as is known; the insignificant flowers, devoid of honey, appear to exclude insect-pollination.--520 species. Most of them are annual (out of 26 native species only 5 are perennial); inhabiting salt-marshes and salt-steppes, and growing as weeds (most frequently on garden or field soil containing manure) in this country, especially species of Chenopodium and Atriplex. The majority are found outside the Tropics, and play a very important part, for example, in the Asiatic salt-steppes. They grow gregariously in large masses.

USES. Comparatively few. The only important one is Beta vulgaris (from the Mediterranean basin), with its different varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-beet, Sugar-beet, and others. These are biennial, making in the first year a root which acts as a reservoir of reserve material, with a rosette of leaves, and in the second year using this material in the production of a long stem, leaves and flowers. The primary root has been developed by cultivation into a very thick and fleshy tap-root; its mode of increase in thickness deviates from that of other roots, concentric rings of vascular bundles being formed from a cambial ring developed outside the previous ring. In this way several rings of vascular bundles separated by medullary rays, alternating with rings of parenchyma, may be found in the root of a Beet. Besides Beta vulgaris, var. hortensis (Beet-root), the following are also cultivated: var. cicla (Leaf-beet, “Mangold,” or “Roman Spinach ”), Spinacia oleracea and Atriplex hortensis as Spinach; a form of the latter and of Spinach are grown as ornamental plants. The tubers of Ullucus tuberosus are used as potatoes; Chenopodium quinoa, in Chili and Peru, is an important farinaceous plant. Soda is made from some (Salsola kali, Chenopodina maritima and others). Aromatic properties are rare: Chenopodium ambrosioides and botrys.

Order 4. =Batidaceæ.= Batis maritima, a bushy West Indian maritime plant.

Order 5. =Phytolaccaceæ.= The ☿ (sometimes unisexual), regular, sometimes slightly perigynous flowers are inconspicuous and have a single sepaloid or coloured 4–5-leaved perianth (generally united at the base); stamens either in 1 whorl in the spaces between the perianth-leaves or in 1 whorl opposite the perianth-leaves, or in 2, one of which alternates with these; but the number may be increased by the splitting of one or of both the whorls to as many as 10–15–20–25. Carpels sometimes only one, sometimes many (4–10) placed in a whorl, either free or united into a gynœceum with a corresponding number of loculi in the ovary; but in all cases each carpel bears only its own style and 1 ovule. The fruit is a berry (or nut, capsule, or schizocarp).--Mostly herbs or herbaceous shrubs, with scattered, simple leaves without stipules (Petiverieæ; have stipules). Inflorescences, most frequently racemes or spikes, which in some instances are apparently placed opposite to a leaf, being displaced by a more vigorous growth of the axillary bud. Embryo always bent.--Petiveria has a straight embryo with rolled cotyledons.--Phytolacca, Pircunia, Microtea, Seguieria, Rivina (Pr4, A4, G1; berry), and others.

The following plant is, with some doubt, placed near this order: Thelygonum cynocrambe; monœcious. ♂-flowers: perianth, 2-leaved; stamens indefinite. ♀-flowers: perianth-leaves united, 3-toothed; G1, style gynobasic. Fruit a drupe. An annual plant; Mediterranean. Branching anomalous.

About 90 species; in tropical and temperate countries, principally America and Africa.--The red juice in the fruits, especially of Phytol. decandra, is used for colouring wine.

Order 6. =Portulacaceæ= (=Portulacas=). The flowers are regular (except Montia), hypogynous (except Portulaca) and ☿. The diagram which applies to the majority of genera is that in Fig. 367, but with all the 5 stamens completely developed: it may be considered as the Chenopodiaceous diagram with the addition of 2 bracteoles in the median line (m-n, these by some are considered as sepals), and with a petaloid perianth (usually designated “corolla”). The “petals” fall off very quickly, and are sometimes wanting. Most frequently 5 stamens, situated opposite the “petals,” but in other genera the number varies; Montia has only 3 stamens (by suppression of the two anterior and lateral, Fig. 367), others again have more than 5, some a large and indefinite number. This may be explained partly by the appearance of a second whorl of stamens alternating with the first, and partly by the splitting (dédoublement) of the stamens. Gynœceum most frequently tricarpellate, ovary unilocular with 1–several basal ovules (sometimes on a branched placenta, as in certain Caryophyllaceæ). The fruit is a capsule, more rarely a nut.--The majority are annual herbaceous plants with scattered, entire leaves, often fleshy and smooth, with or without rudimentary stipules (dry, membranous, modified into hairs). Inflorescence cymose.

Diagram of flower.]

Portulaca (Portulaca): flower, epigynous or semi-epigynous; fruit, a pyxidium. The stamens vary in number, and are most frequently placed in groups (in consequence of splitting) opposite the petals.--Montia: the corolla is slightly gamopetalous, but cleft on the posterior side (Fig. 367), and as a consequence of the larger size of the lateral petals, slightly zygomorphic; 3 stamens.--Calandrinia; Talinum; Anacampseros; Claytonia.

125 species; mostly in warm and temperate countries, especially the arid parts of S. Am. and the Cape. Montia fontana (Blinks) is a native plant. Portulaca oleracea is cultivated as a pot-herb in the south of Europe. A few species of Portulaca and Calandrinia are ornamental plants.

Order 7. =Nyctaginiaceæ.= The characteristic feature of this order is the single, regular, united, and often petaloid perianth, the lower part of which generally persists after flowering and embraces the fruit as a false pericarp. The upper portion is most frequently valvate and folded, or simply valvate in æstivation. The number of stamens varies. The free gynœceum is unicarpellate and has 1 ovule. The fruit is a nut, but becomes a false drupe, since the lower persistent portion of the perianth becomes fleshy (as in Neea, where this fleshy part is almost always crowned by the upper persistent part of the perianth. In the majority of the Mirabileæ the lower part becomes the dry anthocarp, while the upper petaloid part falls away after flowering). Finally, a peculiar involucre is formed around the flowers by free or united floral-leaves.--The majority are herbs, some are trees (Pisonia, etc.); Bougainvillea is a liane. The stems are often nodose and swollen at the nodes; the leaves are simple, penninerved, scattered, or opposite, without stipules. ~In some, the vascular bundles are scattered; stem anomalous.~

Mirabilis; the structure of the stem is abnormal. Dichasial branching with continuation from the second bracteole, thus forming unipared scorpioid cymes. The perianth is petaloid, funnel-shaped, and has a folded and twisted æstivation resembling that of the corolla of the Convolvulaceæ; the upper coloured portion falls off after the flowering. Outside, and alternating with it, is a 5-partite, sepaloid involucre of 5 spirally-placed floral-leaves.--Oxybaphus; the involucre envelops 1–3 dichasial flowers.--Bougainvillea; the involucre is rose-coloured, 3-leaved, and envelops 3 flowers (placed laterally; the terminal flower wanting). The leaves of the involucre in Boerhaavia, Pisonia, Neea, and others are reduced to teeth or scales.

157 species; mostly in tropical countries, and especially S. Am. Species of Mirabilis (Am.) are ornamental plants. Theïn is found in Neea theïfera Oersted (discovered by Lund in Lagoa Santa, Brazil), which may be used as a tea-plant.

Order 8. =Aizoaceæ.= Only 3 whorls are found in the flower, which alternate with one another when their leaves are equal in number. The first is sepaloid, the third one the carpels, and the intervening one is either uncleft, in which case it is developed as stamens, or it is divided into a large number of members which then all become stamens (arranged in groups), or the outermost ones become developed as petals. The fruit is most frequently a capsule with several loculi. Most of the species are herbs with thick, fleshy stems, and exstipulate leaves. The structure of the stem is usually anomalous.

=1.= AIZOIDEÆ have hypogynous or perigynous flowers with (4–) 5 perianth-leaves; stamens single, or (by splitting) in groups of 2–3, alternating with the perianth-leaves. The gynœceum (with 3–5 carpels) has 3–5 loculi in the ovary, and most frequently numerous ovules in each loculus, borne on the central placenta formed by the edges of the carpels. The fruit is a capsule. The inflorescences are dichasia and unipared scorpioid cymes.--Aizoon, Mollugo, Sesuvium, and others are herbs or bushes, most frequently hairy.

=2.= MESEMBRIANTHEMEÆ have semi- or wholly-epigynous flowers.--Tetragonia. The perianth is 4 (more rarely 3–5–6)-merous. Stamens single, or (by splitting) in groups alternating with the perianth-leaves. There is an indefinite number of carpels, and each loculus of the ovary contains only 1 pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut or drupe. The flowers arise singly in the leaf-axils, with an accessory foliage-bud below them; in some instances there is also an accessory flower between this bud and the flower. Southern hemisphere, especially at the Cape; T. expansa, New Zealand Spinach, is a fleshy plant which is cultivated as a pot-herb (Japan, Austr., S. Am.).--Mesembrianthemum: the flowers are 5-merous; the numerous linear petals and the still more numerous stamens all arise by the splitting of 5 or 4 protuberances (primordia) alternating with the sepals. The ovary presents another characteristic peculiarity: the carpels alternating with the 5–4 stamens form an ovary (with several loculi) with the ovules at first borne, as in other cases, on the inner corner of the inwardly-turned carpels; but during the subsequent development the whole ovary is so turned round that the placentæ become parietal and the ovules assume, apparently, a position very rarely met with in the vegetable kingdom: on the dorsal suture of the carpels. Shrubs or under-shrubs, more rarely herbs with fleshy stems and simple, entire, more frequently thick or triangular leaves, containing a quantity of water. The flowers open about noon, and are brightly coloured, generally red or red-violet, but odourless. The capsules dehisce in rainy weather. 300 species, mostly found at the Cape. Some are ornamental plants. M. crystallinum (the Ice-plant) and others are covered with peculiar, bladder-like, sparkling hairs, the cell-sap of which contains salt--these serve as reservoirs of water.

Family 8. =Cactifloræ.=

The position of this family is very doubtful; but it seems in many respects to approach Mesembrianthemum. Some botanists place it near to the Ribesiaceæ; others, again, to the Passifloraceæ. Only 1 order.