Chapter VII. Conclusion

CONCLUSION

Great productive capacity of women under conditions of Family and Domestic Industry—no difference between efficiency of labour when applied for domestic purposes or for trade.

Rate of wages no guide to real value of goods produced—married women unlikely to work for wages when possessing capital for domestic industry—Women’s productiveness in textile industries—Agriculture—Other industries—Professional services.

Capitalism effected economic revolution in women’s position—By (a) substitution of individual for family wages—(b) employment of wage-earners on master’s premises—(c) rapid increase of master’s wealth.

Exclusion of women from skilled trades not originally due to sex jealousy—Women’s lack of specialised training due, (a) to its being unnecessary; (b) the desire to keep wife in subjection to husband—Reduction in the value to her family of woman’s productive capacity by substitution of wage-earning for domestic industry—Effect of her productive energy on her maternal functions and her social influence.

THE preceding chapters have demonstrated the great productive capacity which women possessed when society was organised on the basis of Family and Domestic Industry. There was then no hard-and-fast line dividing domestic occupations from other branches of industry, and thus it has not been possible to discover how much of women’s labour was given to purposes of trade and how much was confined to the service of their families; but as labour was at this time equally productive, whether it was employed for domestic purposes or in Trade, it is not necessary to discriminate between these two classes of production in estimating the extent to which the community depended upon women’s services. The goods produced and the services rendered to their families by wives and daughters, must if they had been idle have employed labour otherwise available for Trade; or to put the position in another way, if the labour of women had been withdrawn from the domestic industries and applied to Trade, more goods would have been produced for the market, which goods the said women’s families would then have obtained by purchase; but while by this means the trade of the country would be greatly increased, unless the efficiency of women’s labour had been raised by its transference from domestic to other forms of industry, the wealth of the community would remain precisely the same.

Nevertheless, in estimating a country’s prosperity domestic production is generally overlooked, because, as the labour devoted to it receives no wages and its results do not enter the market, there is no mechanical standard for estimating its value. For similar reasons Home Trade is commonly considered to be of less importance than Foreign Trade, because, as the latter passes through the Customs, its money value can be much more readily computed, and because the man in the street, like King Midas, has imagined that gold is wealth. But we are here considering the production of goods and services, not of gold, and from this point of view, the woman who spins thread to clothe her family, and she who furnishes by her industry milk and cheese, eggs and pork, fruit and vegetables for the consumption of her family, has produced exactly the same goods, no more and no less, than if she had produced them for the market, and whether these goods are consumed by her own family or by strangers makes absolutely no difference to their real value.

Neither can the value of a woman’s productive activity be judged by the wages she receives, because the value of a pair of sheets is the same, whether the flax has been spun by a well-to-do farmers’ wife who meanwhile lives in affluence, or by a poor woman earning wages which are insufficient to keep body and soul together. The labour required for spinning the flax was the same in either case, for there was no difference in the type of spinning wheel she used, or in her other facilities for work; it was only later, when organisations for trading purposes had enormously increased productive capacity by the introduction of power and the sub-division of labour, that the same productive capacity, devoted to domestic purposes, became relatively inferior in results. This change between the relative efficiency of domestic and industrial labour could not fail, when it took place, to exert a marked influence on the economic position of married women, because while their husbands earned sufficient money to pay rent and a few outgoing expenses, they had no inducement to work for wages, their labour being more productive at home. Women who fed and clothed themselves and their children by means of domestic industry gratified in this way their sense of independence as effectively as if they had earned the equivalent money by trade or wages. Considering the low rates paid to women, it may be supposed that few worked for wages when possessed of sufficient stock to employ themselves fully in domestic industries; on the other hand there were a considerable number who were in a position to hire servants, and who, having learnt a skilled trade, devoted themselves to business, either on their own account or jointly with their husbands.

If the general position of women in the whole field of industry is reviewed, it will be seen that, beyond question, all the textile fabrics used at this time, with the exception of a few luxuries, were made from the thread which was spun by women and children, the export trade in cloth also depending entirely on their labour for spinning and to some extent for the other processes. In agriculture the entire management of the milch cows, the dairy, poultry, pigs, orchard and garden, was undertaken by the women, and though the mistress employed in her department men as well as women servants, the balance was redressed by the fact that women and girls were largely employed in field work. The woman’s contribution to farming is also shown by the fact that twice as much land was allowed to the colonists who were married as to those who were single. The expectation that the women and children in the husbandman class would produce the greater part of their own food is proved by the very low rate of wages which Quarter Sessions fixed for agricultural labour, and by the fact that when no land was available it was recognised that the wage-earner’s family must be dependent on the poor rate.

Though the part which women played in agriculture and the textile industries is fairly clear, a great obscurity still shrouds their position in other directions. One fact however emerges with some distinctness; women of the tradesman class were sufficiently capable in business, and were as a rule so well acquainted with the details of their husband’s concerns, that a man generally appointed his wife as his executrix, while custom universally secured to her the possession of his stock, apprentices and goodwill in the event of his death. That she was often able to carry on his business with success, is shown by incidental references, and also by the frequency with which widow’s names occur in the lists of persons occupying various trades.

How much time the wives of these tradesmen actually spent over their husband’s business is a point on which practically no evidence is forthcoming, but it seems probable that in the skilled trades they were seldom employed in manual processes for which they had received no training, but were occupied in general supervision, buying and selling. It is not therefore surprising to find women specially active in all branches of the Retail Trade, and girls were apprenticed as often to shopkeepers as to the recognised women’s trades such as millinery and mantua-making.

The assistance of the wife was often so important in her husband’s business, that she engaged servants to free her from household drudgery, her own productive capacity being greater than the cost of a servant’s wages. Apart from exceptional cases of illness or incompetence, the share which the wife took in her husband’s business, was determined rather by the question whether he carried it on at home or abroad than by any special appropriateness of the said business to the feminine disposition. Thus, though women were seldom carpenters or masons, they figure as pewterers and smiths. In every business there are certain operations which can conveniently be performed by women, and when carried on at home within the compass of the family life, the work of a trade was as naturally sorted out between husband and wife, as the work on a farm. No question arose as to the relative value of their work, because the proceeds became the joint property of the family, instead of being divided between individuals.

With regard to the services which are now classed as professional, those of healing and teaching were included among the domestic duties of women. Illness was rife in the seventeenth century, for the country was devastated by recurrent epidemics of small-pox and the plague, besides a constant liability to ague and the other ordinary ailments of mankind; thus the need for nursing must have been very great. The sick depended for their tending chiefly upon the women of their own households, and probably the majority of English people at this time, received medical advice and drugs from the same source. Women’s skill in such matters was acquired by experience and tradition, seldom resting upon a scientific basis, for they were excluded from schools and universities. Acquired primarily with a view to domestic use, such skill was extended beyond the family circle, and women who were wise in these matters sometimes received payment for their services. Midwifery alone was really conducted on professional lines, and though practised in former days exclusively by women, it was now passing from their hands owing to their exclusion from the sources of advanced instruction.

It is difficult to estimate the respective shares taken by men and women in the art of teaching, for while the young were dependent on home training, they received attention from both father and mother, and when the age for apprenticeship arrived the task was transferred to the joint care of master and mistress. With regard to learning of a scholastic character, reading was usually taught by women to both boys and girls, who learnt it at home from their mothers, or at a dame’s school; but the teaching of more advanced subjects was almost exclusively in the hands of men, although a few highly educated women were engaged as governesses in certain noble families where the Tudor tradition still lingered. Generally speaking, however, when a girl’s curriculum included such subjects as Latin and Arithmetic her instruction, like her brothers, was received from masters, and this was equally true in the case of accomplishments which were considered more appropriate to the understanding of young ladies. Women rarely, if ever, undertook the teaching of music, painting or dancing. From these branches of the teaching profession they were debarred by lack of specialised training.

Thus it will be seen that the history of women’s position in the professions, follows a very similar course to that of the developments in the world of Industry; work, for which they appeared peculiarly fitted by disposition or natural gifts, while it was included within the domestic sphere, gradually passed out of their hands when the scene of their labour was transferred to the wider domains of human life.

Capitalism was the means by which the revolution in women’s economic position was effected in the industrial world. The three developments which were most instrumental to this end being:—

(a) the substitution of an individual for a family wage, enabling men to organise themselves in the competition which ruled the labour market, without sharing with the women of their families all the benefits derived through their combination.

(b) the withdrawal of wage-earners from home life to work upon the premises of the masters, which prevented the employment of the wage-earner’s wife in her husband’s occupation.

(c) the rapid increase of wealth, which permitted the women of the upper classes to withdraw from all connection with business.

Once the strong hand of necessity is relaxed there has been a marked tendency in English life for the withdrawal of married women from all productive activity, and their consequent devotion to the cultivation of idle graces; the parasitic life of its women has been in fact one of the chief characteristics of the parvenu class. The limitations which surrounded the lives of the women belonging to this class are most vividly described in Pepys’ Journal, where they form a curious contrast to the vigour and independence of the women who were actively engaged in industry. The whole Diary should be read to gain a complete idea of the relations of married life under these new circumstances, but a few extracts will illustrate the poverty of Mrs. Pepys’ interests and her abject dependence on her husband. Most curious of all is Pepys’ naïve admission that he was trying to “make” work for his wife, which furnishes an illustration of the saying “coming events cast their shadows before them.”

“Nov. 12, 1662. much talke and difference between us about my wife’s having a woman, which I seemed much angry at that she should go so far in it without ... my being consulted. 13th. Our discontent again and sorely angered my wife, who indeed do live very lonely, but I do perceive that it is want of worke that do make her and all other people think of ways of spending their time worse. June 8. 1664. Her spirit is lately come to be other than it used to be, and now depends upon her having Ashwell by her, before whom she thinks I shall not say nor do anything of force to her, which vexes me, and makes me wish that I had better considered all that I have done concerning my bringing my wife to this condition of heat. Aug. 20. I see that she is confirmed in it that all I do is by design, and that my very keeping of the house in dirt, and the doing this and anything else in the house, is but to find her employment to keep her within, and from minding of her pleasure, which though I am sorry to see she minds it, is true enough in a great degree. Jan. 14. 1667-8. I do find she do keep very bad remembrance of my former unkindness to her and do mightily complain of her want of money and liberty, which will rather hear and bear the complaint of than grant the contrary.... Feb. 18. a ring which I am to give her as a valentine. It will cost me near £5 she costing me but little in comparison with other wives, and have not many occasions to spend money on her. Feb. 23. with this and what she had she reckons that she hath above £150 worth of jewels of one kind or another; and I am glad of it, for it is fit the wretch should have something to content herself with.”

While the capitalistic organisation of industry increased the wealth of the masters, it condemned a large proportion of the craftsmen to remain permanently in the position of journeymen or wage-earners with the incidental result that women were excluded from their ranks in the more highly skilled trades. Under the old system of Family Industry, labour and capital had been united in one person or family group of persons, but capitalism brought them into conflict; and the competition which had previously only existed between rival families was introduced into the labour market, where men and women struggled with each other to secure work and wages from the capitalist. The keystone of the journeymen’s position in their conflict with capital, lay in their ability to restrict their own numbers by the enforcement of a long apprenticeship and the limitation of the number of apprentices. On gaining this point the journeymen in any trade secured a monopoly which enabled them to bargain advantageously with the masters. Their success raised them into the position of a privileged class in the world of labour, but did nothing to improve the position of the other wage-earners in unskilled or unorganised trades.

When their organisation was strong enough the journeymen allowed no unapprenticed person to be employed upon any process of their trade, however simple or mechanical; a policy which resulted in the complete exclusion of women, owing to the fact that girls were seldom, if ever, apprenticed to these trades. It has been shown that under the old system, craftsmen had been free to employ their wives and daughters in any way that was convenient, the widow retaining her membership in her husband’s gild or company with full trading privileges, and the daughters able, if they wished, to obtain their freedom by patrimony. Journeymen however now worked on their masters’ premises, their traditions dating from a time when they were all unmarried men; and though the majority of them had renounced the expectation of rising above this position of dependence, the idea that they should extend their hardly won privileges to wife or daughter never occurred to them.

Thus came about the exclusion of women from the skilled trades, for the wives of the men who became capitalists withdrew from productive activity, and the wives of journeymen confined themselves to domestic work, or entered the labour market as individuals, being henceforward entirely unprotected in the conflict by their male relations. Capitalistic organisation tended therefore to deprive women of opportunities for sharing in the more profitable forms of production, confining them as wage-earners to the unprotected trades. It would be an anachronism to ascribe this tendency to sex-jealousy in the economic world. The idea of individual property in wages had hardly arisen, for prevailing habits of thought still regarded the earnings of father, mother and children as the joint property of the family, though controlled by the father; and thus the notion that it could be to men’s advantage to debar women from well-paid work would have seemed ridiculous in the seventeenth century. Though the payment of individual wages was actually in force, their implication was hardly understood, and motives of sex-jealousy do not dominate the economic world till a later period. While the family formed the social unit the interests of husband and wife were bound so closely together, that neither could gain or suffer without the other immediately sharing the loss or advantage.

The momentous influence which some phases of Capitalism were destined to exert upon the economic position of women, were unforeseen by the men who played a leading part in its development, and passed unnoticed by the speculative thinkers who wrote long treatises on Theories of State Organisation. The revolution did not involve a conscious demarcation of the respective spheres of men and women in industry; its results were accidental, due to the fact that women were forgotten, and so no attempt was made to adjust their training and social status to the necessities of the new economic organisation. The oversight is not surprising, for women’s relation to the “Home” was regarded as an immutable law of Nature, inviolable by any upheaval in external social arrangements.

Thus the idea that the revolution in women’s economic position was due to deliberate policy may be dismissed. Capitalism is a term denoting a force rather than a system; a force that is no more interested in human relations than is the force of gravitation; nevertheless its sphere of action lies in the social relations of men and women, and its effects are modified and directed by human passions, prejudices and ideals. The continuance of human existence and its emancipation from the trammels that hamper its progress, must depend upon the successful mastery of this as of the other forces of Nature.

If we would understand the effect of the introduction of Capitalism on the social organism, we must remember that the subjection of women to their husbands was the foundation stone of the structure of the community in which Capitalism first made its appearance. Regarded as being equally the law of Nature and the Law of God, no one questioned the necessity of the wife’s obedience, lip service being rendered to the doctrine of subjection, even in those households where it was least enforced. Traditional ideas regarded the common wealth, or social organisation, as an association of families, each family being a community which was largely autonomous, and was self-contained for most of life’s purposes; hence the order and health of the commonwealth depended upon the order and efficiency of the families comprised within it. Before the seventeenth century the English mind could not imagine order existing without an acknowledged head. No one therefore questioned the father’s right to his position as head of the family, but in his temporary absence, or when he was removed by death, the public interest required his family’s preservation, and the mother quite naturally stepped into his place, with all its attendant responsibilities and privileges. In this family organisation all that the father gained was shared by the mother and children, because his whole life, or almost his whole life, was shared by them. This is specially marked in the economic side of existence, where the father did not merely earn money and hand it to the mother to spend, but secured for her also, access to the means of production; the specialised training acquired by the man through apprenticeship did not merely enable him to earn higher wages, but conferred upon his wife the right to work, as far as she was able, in that trade.

Capitalism, however, broke away from the family system, and dealt direct with individuals, the first fruit of individualism being shown by the exclusion of women from the journeymen’s associations; and yet their exclusion was caused in the first place by want of specialised training, and was not the necessary result of Capitalism, for the history of the Cotton Trade shows, in later years, that where the labour of women was essential to an industry, an effective combination of wage-earners could be formed which would include both sexes.

Two explanations may be given for women’s lack of specialised training. The first, and, given the prevailing conditions of Family Industry, probably the most potent reason lay in the belief that it was unnecessary. A specialised training, whether in Science, Art or Industry, is inevitably costly in time and money; and as in every trade there is much work of a character which needs no prolonged specialised training, and as in the ordinary course of a woman’s life a certain proportion of her time and energy must be devoted to bearing and rearing children, it seemed a wise economy to spend the cost of specialised training on boys, employing women over those processes which chiefly required general intelligence and common-sense. It has been shown that this policy answered well enough in the days of Domestic and Family Industry when the husband and wife worked together, and the wife therefore reaped the advantages of the trading privileges and social position won by her husband. It was only when Capitalism re-organised industry on an individual basis, that the wife was driven to fight her economic battles single handed, and women, hampered by the want of specialised training, were beaten down into sweated trades.

The second explanation for women’s lack of specialised training is the doctrine of the subjection of women to their husbands. While the first reason was more influential during the days of Family and Domestic Industry, the second gains in force with the development of Capitalism. If women’s want of specialised training had been prejudicial to their capacity for work in former times, such training would not have been withheld from them merely through fear of its weakening the husband’s power, because the husband was so dependent upon his wife’s assistance. There was little talk then of men “keeping” their wives; neither husband nor wife could prosper without the other’s help. But the introduction of Capitalism, organising industry on an individual basis, freed men to some extent from this economic dependence on their wives, and from henceforward the ideal of the subjection of women to their husbands could be pursued, unhampered by fear of the dangers resulting to the said husbands by a lessening of the wife’s economic efficiency.

A sense of inferiority is one of the prime requisites for a continued state of subjection, and nothing contributes to this sense so much, as a marked inferiority of education and training in a society accustomed to rate everything according to its money value. The difference in earning capacity which the want of education produces, is in itself sufficient to stamp a class as inferior.

There is yet another influence which contributed to the decline in the standard of women’s education and in their social and economic position, which is so noticeable in the seventeenth century. This period marks the emergence of the political idea of the “mechanical state” and its substitution for the traditional view of the nation as a commonwealth of families. Within the family, women had their position, but neither Locke, nor Hobbes, nor the obscure writers on political theory and philosophy who crowd the last half of the seventeenth century, contemplate the inclusion of women in the State of their imagination. For them the line is sharply drawn between the spheres of men and women; women are confined within the circle of their domestic responsibilities, while men should explore the ever widening regions of the State. The really significant aspect of this changed orientation of social ideas, is the separation which it introduces between the lives of women and those of men, because hitherto men as well as women lived in the Home.

The mechanical State quâ State did not yet exist in fact, for the functions of the Government did not extend much beyond the enforcement of Justice and the maintenance of Defence. Englishmen were struggling to a realisation of the other aspects of national life by means of voluntary associations for the pursuit of Science, of Trade, of Education, or other objects, and it is in these associations that the trend of their ideas is manifested, for one and all exclude women from their membership; to foster the charming dependence of women upon their husbands, all independent sources of information were, as far as possible, closed to them. Any association or combination of women outside the limits of their own families was discouraged, and the benefits which had been extended to them in this respect by the Catholic Religion were specially deprecated. Milton’s statement sums up very fairly the ideas of this school of thought regarding the relations that should exist between husband and wife in the general scheme of things. They were to exist “He for God only, she for God in him.” The general standard of education resulting from such theories was inevitably inferior; and the exclusion of women from skilled industry and the professions, was equally certain to be the consequence sooner or later, of the absence of specialised training.

The general effect upon women of this exclusion, which ultimately limited their productive capacity to the field of household drudgery, or to the lowest paid ranks of unskilled labour, belongs to a much later period. But one point can already be discerned and must not be overlooked. This point is the alteration which took place in the value to her family of a woman’s productive capacity when her labour was transferred from domestic industry to wage-earning, under the conditions prevailing in the seventeenth century. When employed in domestic industry the whole value of what she produced was retained by her family; but when she worked for wages her family only received such a proportion of it as she was able to secure to them by her weak bargaining power in the labour market. What this difference amounted to will be seen when it is remembered that the wife of a husbandman could care for her children and feed and clothe herself and them by domestic industry, but when working for wages she could not earn enough for her own maintenance.

This depreciation of the woman’s productive value to her family did not greatly influence her position in the seventeenth century, because it was then only visible in the class of wage-earners, and into this position women were forced by poverty alone. The productive efficiency of women’s services in domestic industry remained as high as ever, and every family which was possessed of sufficient capital for domestic industry, could provide sufficient profitable occupation for its women without their entry into the labour market. Independent hard-working families living under the conditions provided by Family and Domestic Industry, still formed the majority of the English people. The upper classes, as far as the women were concerned, were becoming more idle, and the number of families depending wholly on wages was increasing, but farmers, husbandmen and tradesmen, still formed a class sufficiently numerous to maintain the hardy stock of the English race unimpaired. Thus, while the productive capacity of women was reduced in the seventeenth century by the idleness of the nouveau riche and by the inefficiency of women wage-earners which resulted from their lack of nourishment, it was maintained at the former high level among the intermediate and much larger class, known as “the common people.”

Though from the economic point of view intense productive energy on the part of women is no longer necessary to the existence of the race, and has been generally abandoned, an understanding of its effect upon the maternal functions is extremely important to the sociologist. No complete vital statistics were collected in the seventeenth century, but an examination of the different evidence which is still available, leaves no doubt that the birth-rate was extremely high in all classes, except perhaps that of wage-earners. It was usual for active busy women amongst the nobility and gentry, to bear from twelve to twenty children, and though the death rate was also high, the children that survived appear to have possessed abundant vitality and energy. Neither does the toil which fell to the lot of the women among the common people appear to have injured their capacity for motherhood; in fact the wives of husbandmen were the type selected by the wealthy to act as wet nurses for their children. It is only among the class of wage-earners that the capacity for reproduction appears to have been checked, and in this class it was the under-feeding, rather than the over-working of the mothers, which rendered them incapable of rearing their infants.

The effect of the economic position of women, must be considered also in relation to another special function which women exercise in society, namely the part which they play in the psychic and moral reactions between the sexes. This subject has seldom been investigated in a detached and truly scientific spirit, and therefore any generalisations that may be submitted have little value. It will only be observed here that the exercise by women of productive energy in the Elizabethan period, was not then inconsistent with the attainment by the English race of its high-water mark in vitality and creative force, and that a comparison of the social standards described by Restoration and Elizabethan Dramatists, reveals a decadence, which, if not consequent upon, was at least coincident with, the general withdrawal of upper-class women from their previous occupation with public and private affairs.

Undoubtedly the removal of business and public interests from the home, resulted in a loss of educational opportunities for girls; a loss which was not made good to them in other ways, and which therefore produced generations of women endowed with a lower mental and moral calibre. The influence of women upon their husbands narrowed as men’s lives drifted away from the home circle and centred more round clubs and external business relations. Hence it came about that in the actual social organisation prevailing in England during the last half of the seventeenth century, the influence or psychic reaction of women upon men was very different in character and much more limited in scope, than that exercised by them in the Elizabethan period. When considered in regard to the historical facts of this epoch, it will be noticed that the process by which the vital forces and energy of the people were lowered and which in common parlance is termed emasculation, accompanied an evolution which was in fact depressing the female forces of the nation, leaving to the male forces an ever greater predominance in the directing of the people’s destiny. The evidence given in the preceding chapters is insufficient to determine what is cause and what is effect in such complicated issues of life, and only shows that a great expenditure of productive energy on the part of women is not, under certain circumstances, inconsistent with the successful exercise of their maternal functions, nor does it necessarily exhaust the creative vital forces of the race.

The enquiry into the effect which the appearance of Capitalism has produced upon the economic position of women has drawn attention to another issue, which concerns a fundamental relation of human society, namely to what extent does the Community or State include women among its integral members, and provide them with security for the exercise of their functions, whether these may be of the same character or different from those of men.

It has been suggested that the earlier English Commonwealth did actually embrace both men and women in its idea of the “Whole,” because it was composed of self-contained families consisting of men, women and children, all three of which are essential for the continuance of human society; but the mechanical State which replaced it, and whose development has accompanied the extension of Capitalism, has regarded the individual, not the family, as its unit, and in England this State began with the conception that it was concerned only with male individuals. Thus it came to pass that every womanly function was considered as the private interest of husbands and fathers, bearing no relation to the life of the State, and therefore demanding from the community as a whole no special care or provision.

The implications of such an idea, together with the effect which it produced upon a society in which formerly women had been recognised as members, though perhaps not equal members, cannot be fully discussed in this essay; the investigation would require a much wider field of evidence than can be provided from the survey of one century. But from the mere recognition that such a change took place, follow ideas of the most far-reaching significance concerning the structure of human society; we may even ask ourselves whether the instability, superficiality and spiritual poverty of modern life, do not spring from the organisation of a State which regards the purposes of life solely from the male standpoint, and we may permit ourselves to hope that when this mechanism has been effectively replaced by the organisation of the whole, which is both male and female, humanity will receive a renewal of strength that will enable them to grapple effectively with the blind force Capitalism;—that force which, while producing wealth beyond the dreams of avarice, has hitherto robbed us of so large a part of the joy of creation.

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WAGES ASSESSMENTS.

County. Reference.

Buckingham Hamilton, A. H. A., Quarter Sessions Records from Queen Eliz. to Queen Anne.

Cardigan Dyson, Humfrey, Proclamations of Queen Elizabeth. G6463 (331b.).

Chester Harleian MSS., 2054 (3) f. 5 2b.

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Devonshire Hamilton, A. H. A., Quarter Sessions Record.

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Hertfordshire Hardy, W. J., Hertford County Records.

Kent Rogers, J. E. T., History of Agriculture and Prices. Vol. VII., p. 623.

Kingston-upon-Hull Dyson, Humfrey, Proclamations. G6463 (77).

Lancashire Rogers, J. E. T., History of Agriculture and Prices. Vol. VI., p. 689.

Lincolnshire Hist. MSS. Com., Duke of Rutland, Vol. I., p. 460.

London Lord Mayor’s Proclamations. 21 h. 5 (61).

Middlesex Hardy, W. J., Middlesex County Records.

Norfolk English Historical Review, Vol. XIII., p. 522.

Rutland Archeologia, Vol. XI., pp. 200-7.

St. Albans Gibbs, Corporation Records.

Somerset Somerset Quarter Sessions Records.

Suffolk Cullum, Sir John., History of Hawstead.

Warwickshire Archeologia, Vol. XI., p. 208.

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Worcestershire Hist. MSS. Com. Var. Coll., Vol. I., p. 323.

Yorkshire: Rogers, J. E. T., History of Agriculture and East Riding Prices, Vol. VI., p. 686.

Yorkshire: Atkinson, J. C., Yorkshire, North Riding Quarter North Riding Sessions Records, Vols. VI. and VII.

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INDEX

Agriculture, 9, 42-92 passim, 93, 150, 292;seq., see Apprentice, Capitalism, Dairy, Farmer, Husbandman, Labourer, Pig-keeping, Poultry-keeping, Spinning, Wages, Wage-earner, Wife, Yeoman; conditions for rearing children, 43, 92.

Alehouse, 91 seq., 101, 225, 229, 231-233 passim; see Brewing, Inn-keeper; livelihood for widows and infirm people, 230-232.

Alewife, 222, 232; see Brewing.

Apothecaries, 184, 259-263 passim; see Doctor, Gilds.

Apprentice, 6, 26, 112, 144, 156, 185, 195, 211, 213, 293; agriculture, 59; Gild trades, boys, 163, 165 seq., 177, 185, 187, 260, girls, 10, 150, 166, 175 seq., 185, 195, 261, 298; other trades, boys, 159, 185, 214, 226, 261, girls, 151, 194, 217, 220, 293; retail trades, 200 seq.; silk trade, 138, 141 seq.; weavers, 104 seq., 122; duties of apprentices, 5, 157; restriction of numbers, 10, 156, 188, 298; apprentices of women, 162, 168 seq., 173, 179, 194, 220; of widows, 104, 162, 168 seq., 173 seq., 183, 187 seq., 190, 293.

Apprenticeship, 146, 151, 156, 160 seq., 165, 177, 184, 191, 194, 196, 200 seq., 212-214 passim, 234, 261, 269 seq., 298, 301.

Apprentice Trade, 106.

Aristocracy, see Capitalist; character of women, 38-41, 253, 289, 296 seq., 305 seq.; confinements, 267 seq.; occupations, 14-27, 35, 38, 53 seq., 253, 255 seq.

Armourers and Brasiers, 178, 183 seq. See Gilds.

Assheton, Nicholas, 280.

Astell, Mary, 38.

Assize, of beer, 224; of bread, 211.

Badger, 204 seq.

Baillie, Lady Grisell, 16, 68, 229.

Bakers, 8, 92, 202, 208-215 passim; corporations of, 212 seq.; restrictions on, 210, 211, 215; women bake for domestic purposes, 47, 50, 210, 214; for sale, 30, 213, 214; wife assists husband, 211 seq., 215.

Baptist, 240.

Barber-surgeons, 259-263 passim, 265, 276, 284; see Gilds.

Barrymore, Lady, 14.

Bedell, Mrs. Eliz., 256.

Best, 60-62 passim, 78.

Beverley, 180, 183, 211, 221 seq.

Binder, 161, 167.

Birth-rate, 4, 43, 86 seq., 305.

Bleacher, 129, 145.

Bookseller, 161, 168.

Bourgeois, Mme. Louise, 275, 284.

Borough, 209; see Corporations.

Brathwaite, Richard, 29, 53.

Brewing, 8, 11, 209, 221-233 passim; see Alehouse, Alewife, Apprentices, Capitalism, Domestic, Gilds; Brewster 11, 155, 221 seq., 229; Common Brewers, 223-227 passim, 230; Fellowship of, 223-226; for domestic purposes, 5, 8, 47, 50, 210, 223; for retail, 210, 222-230; for wages, 229 seq.

Bristol, 103, 134, 182, 185, 191, 232.

Burford, Rose de, 140.

Burling, 105 seq., 132, 145.

Bury, 222.

Bury St. Edmunds, 227.

Business affairs of family, 41; see Family; managed by wife, 16, 21 seq., 54 seq.; superior capacity of Dutch women, 36-38 passim; wife unequal to, 20, 22 seq.; women’s capacity for, 20, 34, 38 seq.

Butcher, 155, 202, 209 seq., 216-219 passim, 221; see Apprentices; selling wool, 107; wage-earners, 219.

Buttons, 142, 144.

Butter, 8, 49; see Dairy.

Cane-chair bottoming, 195.

Capitalism, 6, 300, 308; see Capitalistic Organisation, Family Industry, Gilds, Industrialism, Linen-manufacture, Silk, Textile Trades, Woollen; definition of, 7; demand for labour, 90 seq.; effect on Domestic Industry, 8, 11, 94; effect on Family Industry, 8, 10, 11, 94, 142, 156, 165, 196, 297; effect on Marital Relations, 40 seq., 158, 167, 197, 235, 296, 299, 301 seq.; effect on Motherhood, 8 seq., 11 seq., 306; effect on Social Organisation, 8 seq., 40, 148, 300, 306 seq.; effect on women’s economic position, 8 seq., 10, 92, 94, 96, 98, 145 seq., 165, 167, 196, 235, 295-299 passim, 301, 302, 307; effect on women’s morale and physique, 41; in agriculture, 43, 56, 92; in brewing, 11, 226, 230; in Crafts and Trades, 156, 158, 165, 196.

Capitalists, see Aristocracy; Definition of, 14; idleness of wives and daughters, 10, 38, 41, 50, 235, 296-298 passim, 305; women’s activity as Capitalists, 14-41 passim.

Capitalistic organisation, 13, 94, 146, 196, 236; see Capitalism, Industrialism.

Carding, employment for poor, 116, 132; men, 102, 116; women, 99, 108, 120 seq., 141.

Card maker, 190.

Carlisle, 44, 53, 153, 201, 203, 211, 215.

Carpenter, 170-178 passim, 187, 195; see Companies.

Carrier of letters, 63.

Cellier, Mrs., 195, 269, 273-276 passim.

Chamberlain, Dr. Hugh, 281, 283.

Chamberlain, Peter, 272 seq.

Chandler, wax and tallow, 155, 195, 200, 202.

Chapmen, 109, 155, 206.

Cheese, 8, 49, 53, 208.

Chester, 155, 181, 211, 217, 232.

Child, Sir J., 36.

Child’s coate seller, 176.

Children, 22, 45, 88, 147 seq., 192-194 passim, 196, 256; see Agriculture, Apprentice, Capitalism, Cost of Living, Education, Family, Father, Housing, Husband, Infant Mortality, Mother, Nursing, Poor, Settlement, Wages, Wage-earners, Widow, Wife; attending gild dinners, 180; employment in agriculture, 59 seq., 64; in textile manufacture, 9, 97 seq., 106, 108, 112-114 passim, 125, 130-134 passim, 140-144 passim, 292; reduce women’s wage-earning capacity, 68 seq., 92, 136, 147; right to work in father’s trade, 156, 165 seq., 185; share in family property, 7, 182; share in supporting family, 12, 72, 79, 105, 192 seq., 293; under-feeding of, 64, 86 seq., 118.

Child-birth, 46, 267, 273, 276, 283, 285; see Aristocracy, Common-people, Midwifery.

Church, 236-242; supervision of midwives, 277 seq.

Clockmakers, 187.

Clothiers, 98-102 passim, 108-112 passim, 117-124 passim, 141, 147; see Poor; force workpeople to take goods for wages, 117 seq.; women, 9, 100-102 passim, 124.

Cloth-workers, 184.

Coal-owner, 34.

Common-people, 3, 257, 305; definition of, 148, 253; childbirth, 267-269 passim; women’s position controlled by necessity, 41.

Companies, 10, 25-27 passim, 189, 207, 212, 259, 260 seq.; see Corporations, Gilds, Apothecaries, Armourers and Braziers, Bakers, Barber-surgeons, Binder, Book-sellers, Brewsters, Butchers, Carpenters, Clockmakers, Cloth-workers, Cutlers, Drapers, Dyers, Embroiderers, Fishmongers, Fullers, Girdlers, Glass-sellers, Glovers, Goldsmiths, Gold-wire Drawers, Grocers, Joiners, Leather-sellers, Mercers, Merchants, Merchant, Taylors, Midwives, Painter-Stainers, Pewterers, Physicians, Point-makers, Printers, Publishers, Shoe-makers, Smiths, Stationers, Tailors, Upholsterers, Whit-awers.

Congreve, 3.

Contractors, 31.

Cooking, 11.

Corporations (Municipal), 151, 199-204 passim, 209, 212, 218, 224, 263; see Boroughs, Companies, Customs, Gilds, Beverley, Bristol, Bury, Bury St. Edmunds, Carlisle, Chester, Dorchester, Exeter, Grimsby, Hull, Kingston-upon-Hull, Leicester, Lincoln, London, Manchester, Norwich, Nottingham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Reading, Rye, Salford, Salisbury, Sandwich, St. Albans, Sheffield, Southampton, Tiverton, Torksey, York.

Cost of living, 68-79 passim, 134; diet of children, 68, 71, 223; servants, 68; difference between men, women and children, 71-73 passim, 127; Family of three Children, 68, 73.

Cotton trade, 94, 124.

Cowden, parish of, 131, 264, 280.

Cows, 45, 47, 53, 55, 57, 209, 292; see Dairy, Milking.

Crafts, 10, 150-197; see Gilds, Trades.

Craftsman, 10, 197.

Cromwell family, 18, 69.

Culpeper, Nicholas, 271 seq.

Custom (habit), 155, 158-161.

Customs, 160; see Corporations; excise, 140.

Cutler, 187.

Cutworks, 32.

Dairy, see Butter, Cheese, Cows, Milking; produce for domestic consumption, 5, 43; as pin-money, 54; supplementing family income, 55; women’s sphere, 5, 50, 53, 292.

Dant, Joan, 32 seq., 206.

Daughters, 176 seq., 197 seq., 252, 284; see Burling, Education; employed in parents’ trade, 184, seq., 195, 200, 217, 298; enters company by patrimony, 191, 298; hired out as weavers, 103; sustaining parents, 115.

Decker, Thos., 158 seq.

Defoe, Daniel, 96, 115 seq., 156 seq.

Distaff, 13, 48, 107, 111.

Doctor, see Apothecaries, Barber-surgeons, Physicians, Midwifery.

Domestic Industry, 4 seq., 8, 40, 47-49, 151, 210, 254, 302; see Baking, Brewers, Capitalism, Dairy, Family Industry, Servants, Spinning, Textile Trades; definition of, 4-6 passim; drudgery performed by servants, 156 seq., 294, 304; effect on women’s economic position, 145, 290, 292; girls’ work, 11 seq.; men’s work, 5.

Dorchester, 132 seq., 185, 200, 217, 261, 263 seq.

Drapers, 184, 200; see Gild.

Dunning, Richard, 132.

Dyer, 111, 155; of leather, 158; in Ireland, 18.

Education, 36, 242, 286 seq., 295, 302-306 passim; see Apprentice, Children, Mother, Poor Relief, Teaching; arithmetic unnecessary for girls, 52; industrial, 71, 130-135 passim; influence of domestic and family industry, 40; institutions, 239; medical, 255, 288; nurses, 249; want of specialised training for girls, 243, 288, 301, 304.

Embroiderer, 184.

Elizabethan Period, Women of, 2, 3, 9, 38, 41.

Estate Management, 14, 15, 17.

Evelyn, John, 115.

Everenden, 62.

Executrix, 39, 188, 293.

Exeter, 206.

Eyre, Adam, 54.

Farmer, 42-56 passim, 108, 155; see Agriculture, Capitalism; definition of, 43; demand for labour, 81, 83, 90, 91; finds sureties for married labourers, 83 seq.; preference for unmarried labourers, 12; wife’s occupation, 46-50 passim, 111, 112; women’s characteristics, 43 seq.

Farrier, 155.

Father, 39, 45, 56, 79, 86, 145, 237; deserts starving family, 118, 148; head of family, 6, 300; interest in children, 5, 54, 160, 295; profits of family industry vested in father, 6, 7, 182, 294, 299.

Falkland, The Lady, 18-20 passim.

Falkland, The Lady Letice, 241, 251, 256.

Family, 73, 80, 100, 106, 122, 144, 204, 219, 242, 286, 291, 294, 299, 304, 307; see Business, Capitalism, Father, Mother, Wages, Wage-earners, Widow, Wife; basis of social organisation, 285, 288, 290, 299 seq.; chargeable to Parish, 80-88 passim, 134, 142, 146, 204; dependence on wages, 43, 56, 178; see Husbandmen, Wage-earners; size of, 86 seq.; traditions lost, 118, 148, 237, 287.

Family Industry, 6-11 passim, 92, 94, 96 seq., 102, 142, 151, 156, 165, 192 seq., 196, 216, 234, 290, 297, 301 seq., 305; see Capitalism.

Fanshawe, Lady, 22.

Fell, Sarah, 17, 51, 255.

Feltmaker, 190.

Fiennes, Celia, 62, 73, 124, 233.

Firmin, Thomas, 135-137 passim.

Fishmonger, 219 seq.

Fishwives, 36, 209, 219-221; oyster wives, 202, 220.

Fitzherbert, Sir Anthony, 46-50, 129.

Flax, 64, 146, 246, 291; sowing, 40, 48, 128.

Foulis, Sir John, 32, 280 seq.

Foreign Women, Dutch merchants, 36 seq., 219; Flanders, workers of woollen cloths, 103; French midwives, 268, 275, 284.

Fullers, 121, 145, 155, 157, 189.

Garden, women’s sphere, 5, 9, 48, 50, 53, 292.

Gardiner, Lady, 15.

Gilds, 10, 141, 150, 154-156 passim, 192, 196; see Apprentice, Capitalism, Companies, Journeyman, Wife; admission to, 160 seq., 176 seq., 179, 191; charters, 140, 160, 178, 181-183 passim; 187, 259; development into Companies, 158; functions, religious, social and for trade purposes, 154, 160, 171-181 passim; revilings, 172, 182, 183; rules, 157 seq., 179 seq., 187; women’s position in, 150, 154-191 passim; in woman’s trade, 195 seq.

Girdlers, 185, 189; see Companies.

Glass-sellers, 187; see Companies.

Glovers, 181, 185, 191 seq.; see Companies.

Gold and Silver Thread, 26, 143-145 passim; pauper trade, 145 seq.

Goldsmith, 184; see Companies.

Gold-wire Drawers; see Gold and Silver Thread.

Grimsby, 31.

Grocers, 179, 184, 201 seq., 260; see Companies.

Haberdasher, 200.

Hale, Sir Matthew, 79.

Harber, Sylvia, 122 seq.

Harley, Brilliana Lady, 15 seq.

Harley, Sir E., 16.

Harrowing, 87.

Hawkers, 204-207 passim.

Hay-making, 49, 62.

Hellyard, Elizabeth, 34 seq.

Heylyn, Peter, 54 seq., 239, 278.

Heywood, Oliver, 87, 129.

Hobbes, 258, 303.

Holroyd, Joseph, 30.

Home, 4; see Industrial Revolution; includes workshop, 7 seq., 156-160 passim, 294; men’s sphere as well as women’s, 303; opportunities for production in home, 147; wage-earners work away from home, 296.

Howell, James, 37, 53.

Hospitals, 243-249; see Nurses.

Household, accounts, 17; affairs, 157; of craftsmen, 158 seq.; size of, 15, 50, 99.

Housing, 73-81 passim.

Huckster, 155.

Hull, 30, 212 seq.

Husband, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22-24 passim, 34, 39, 46, 49, 88 seq., 95, 118, 171-173 passim, 212, 228, 233 seq., 240, 306; see Wife; acquires wife’s rights, 161, 213; assists wife, 199, 214, 301; companionship with wife, 160, 183, 301-303 passim, 306; dependence on wife’s assistance, 16, 36 seq., 46, 153, 165, 194, 196, 211; ill-treatment of wife, 191; independence of wife, 41, 197; meddles not with wife’s trade, 231 seq.; not responsible for wife’s debts, 151 seq.

Husbandman, 3, 56-64 passim; definition of, 43, 57; girls’ environment, 87; independence, 56; rent, 57; wages, men, 59-62 passim, women, 60-63 passim; wife’s occupation, 60-64 passim, 111 seq.; wife as wet-nurse, 58; women’s characteristics, 58 seq.

Hutchinson, Mrs. Lucy, 23 seq., 255, 263.

Hutchinson, Colonel, 23 seq., 252.

Keeper of tenis court, 25.

King, Gregory, 55, 80, 86.

Kingston-upon-Hull, 103, 181.

Knitting, 18, 26, 133.

Idleness, 138, 253.

Industrialism, 94, 123; see Capitalism; attempted introduction of factory system, 99, 124.

Industrial Revolution, 8 seq.

Industry; see Domestic, Family, Capitalism.

Infant Mortality, 58, 86, 273, 276, 283, 305.

Inn-keeper, 155, 209, 213, 225, 227, 233.

Insurance Office, 33.

Ireland, 18, 126.

Ironmonger, 155.

Joiners, 181; see Companies.

Jonson, Ben, 28, 257.

Josselin, the Rev. R., 50, 257.

Journeyman, 156, 159, 180, 212, 297 seq.; see Widow; employed by women, 174, 185, 189, 261; organisation of, 10, 166; wives and daughters excluded, 10, 166, 197, 234, 298, 301; wife unpaid servant, 10.

Labourer, see Farmer, Husbandman, Wage earner, Wages.

Laundry, maid, 50; work, 5, 13, 49, 135, 155.

Law, 236 seq.

Lace, see Ireland; bone-lace, 142, 144.

Leather-sellers, 158, 185; see Companies.

Leicester, 210, 222 seq.

Leland, 99.

Lincoln, 157.

Linen manufacture, 94, 96, 124-137 passim, 138; see Drapers, Flax, Poor, Spinning, Weaving; appropriateness to women, 128 seq.; capitalistic, 124, 136; company, 126-128 passim, 136; domestic, 5, 40, 48, 96, 125, 128, 129, 137; family, 128; in Ireland, 126 seq.; printers, 126; in Scotland, 126, 129; wages for spinning, 48, 95 seq., 128-137 passim, 146.

London, 29, 31, 33, 131, 135, 138-141 passim, 152, 158-195 passim, 202, 206, 208, 217, 220, 233, 243-249 passim, 258-263 passim, 281.

Malt-making, 47, 49 seq., 224-226 passim.

Manchester, 206, 213, 218, 221.

Mansell, Lady, 35.

Mantua-making, 195, 234, 293.

Marriage, 191; see Poor relief, Wife, Mother; confers woman’s rights on her husband, 261; strengthens man’s economic position, 39.

Married Woman; see, Mother, Wife.

Market, 4, 119, 202, 204, 217, 291; corn-market, 211; Farmer’s wife attends market, 49-51; labour market, 145, 167, 298; price of spinning, 129; market spinner, 107, 109 seq., 113; town, 224 seq.; thread, yarn and wool, sold in market, 107-109 passim, 112, 127 seq.; woman, 135.

Martindale, Adam, 55, 257.

McMath, James, 267, 282.

Medicine, 242, 253-265 passim, 286, 288, 294; see Poor, Servants; domestic practice, 242, 254-257 passim; education of women, 255, 294; their exclusion from schools, 254, 265, 294; fees, 262, 264; Licensed by Bishop, 276; professional practice, 242, 254, 257-259 passim, 263 seq.; restrictions on women, 259 seq.; women’s skill extended to neighbours, 255-257 passim, 294.

Mercers, 184, 201.

Merchant, 29, 36, 140, 155, 180-184 passim; see Joan Dant.

Middle-man, 110, 124; see Market spinner.

Midwife, 258; see Midwifery; Baptism by, 277-279 passim; Fees, 268, 279-281 passim; Licences, 272-279 passim; Man-midwife, 265, 271 seq., 284; Prosecutions of, 279.

Midwifery, 242 seq., 265-285, 288; see Midwife; chiefly professional, 265; doctor’s assistance, 271, 280-284 passim; French, 268, 275, 279, 284; training of women for, 269-275 passim, 288.

Milking, 47.

Mill, 47, 210, 215 seq.

Miller, 209, 212, 215 seq.; wages of, 66.

Milliner, 176, 195, 234, 293.

Milton, John, 240, 304.

Money-lender, 28 seq., see Pawnbroker.

Monopolies and patents, 25-28 passim.

Moore, Rev. Giles, 252.

Mother, 43, 63 seq., 73, 125, 196, 198, 214; see Capitalism, Domestic Industry, Spinning, Wages, Widow, Wife; desertion of children, 86; educating children, 21, 95, 159, 242, 286, 295; head of family, 7, 234, 300; sharing father’s work, 6 seq.; supporting family, 12, 29, 55, 64, 78 seq., 114, 178, 192-194 passim, 198; tending children, 47, 63, 95; under-feeding, 87-89 passim, 306; value of productive activity, 145, 290 seq., 304; worship of, 238 seq.

Motherhood, women’s capacity for, 8 seq., 58, 87, 305.

Murray, Lady, 16.

Needlework, 13.

Netmaker, 155.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 34, 226.

Nicholson, Dame Margaret, 60.

Norwich, 107, 116, 219, 229.

Nottingham, 130, 201, 217, 232.

Nurse, sick, 13, 135, 155; salaries, 243-246 passim, 248, 250 seq.

Nursing, 242-253; see Poor, Servants.

Ogden, Hester, 164.

Orphan, see Children, Poor Relief.

Osborne, Dorothy, 57.

Painter-Stainer, 188.

Paper-maker, 32.

Pauper, see Poor.

Pawnbroker, 28 seq.; see Money-lender.

Pechey, 275.

Pedlar, 32, 204-207 passim.

Pepys Samuel, 3, 38 seq., 59, 62, 281, 296 seq.

Peronne, Mme., 268.

Petitions, from women, 23-27 passim, 118, 121, 138; of married woman objected to, 77.

Petty, Dorothy, 33 seq.

Pewterers, 183, 186 seq., 191, 210, 294; see Companies.

Physicians, 259, 262, 265, 271, 275 seq., 284.

Politics, see Petitions; women’s interest in, 23 seq.

Pig-keeping, 5, 48, 52 seq., 292.

Pin-maker, 193.

Point-maker, 191.

Poor, see Hospitals, Midwife, Silk, Spinning, Wages, Wage-earners; census of, 219; clothiers’ poor, 109; confinements, 277, 280; education of, 130-134 passim; increased wages, 115; medical attendance, 255 seq., 263-265 passim; not all vagrants, 135; nursing, 243, 251 seq.; relief, 69-92 passim, 118, 129-137 passim, 204; set on work, 110, 120, 130-137 passim, 140, 148; synonymous with pauper, 148; widows and orphans maintained by parish, 204; workhouse, 72, 131-134 passim.

Poultry-keeping, 5, 48, 50, 87, 209, 292.

Pregnancy, 24, 72 seq., 82, 89.

Printer, 161-167; see Companies.

Professions, 5, 236-289 passim; see Church, Education, Law, Medicine, Midwifery, Nursing, Teaching; services, 4 seq., 294 seq.; women’s position in, 13, 304.

Projector, 28.

Provision Trades, 150, seq., 209-234 passim; see Alehouse, Alewife, Apprentice, Bakers, Brewing, Butcher, Fishwife, Inn-keeper, Malt-making, Miller, Retail Trades, Vintner, Wife, Widow; women’s position in, 10 seq.

Publisher, 167; see Companies.

Pulling pease, 61 seq.

Quakers, 51, 168, 199, 240; see Fell; Adams (wife of John), 153; Banks, (wife of John), 44; Batt, Mary, 45 seq.; Bownas (wife of Samuel), 52; Townsend, Will., marriage of, 190.

Rawdon, Marmaduke, 257.

Raynold, 266 seq., 269.

Reading, 85, 132, 189, 203 seq., 213, 216, 249 seq.

Regrater, 204 seq., 207-209 passim, 218 seq.

Religion, independence of married women, 240.

Restoration Period, women of, 2, 9, 38, 41.

Retail Trade, 197-209 passim; see Chapmen, Badger, Haberdashers, Hawkers, Pedlars, Regrater, Shopkeepers; women’s position in, 10 seq., 150 seq., 156, 172, 197, 209, 293.

Rous, Margaret, 17.

Rye, 152 seq.

Salford, 52 seq., 84, 212.

Salisbury, 184, 213, 258 seq.

Salisbury, Earl of, 25, 111.

Sandwich, 152.

Salt concerns, 17 seq.

Scotland, 126, 129.

Scottish, 140.

Semptsress, 155, 175 seq., 202, 221.

Servants, 5 seq., 26, 155 seq., 176, 187, 202, 220, 241; see Brewing, Journeyman, Wages, Wages assessments; diet of, 68, 88; dresses, 126; employed in domestic drudgery, 5, 157, 196, 292, 294; employed in spinning, 125; farm, 47, 50, 116, 210, 229; married, 81, 88; scarcity of, 56; housekeepers’ duties, 255; medical attendance on, 252, 263; men servants brought up by women, 141; of clothiers, 101; nursing of, 251 seq.; shoemaker, 66, 203; training of, 253; women, scarcity of, 157.

Sex-jealousy, an anachronism, 299; absence in woollen trade, 95, 123; exclusion of women from trades, 103, 105, 106, 191.

Shakespeare, 3.

Sharp, Jane, 269-271 passim.

Shearing, corn, 49, 60; sheep, 62.

Sheffield, 187.

Shepherd, 62.

Shipping, 29-31 passim.

Shoemaker, 155, 158 seq., 184, 202 seq.; see Servants.

Shopkeeper, 158, 168, 198-209 passim.

Silk manufacture, 94, 126, 138-143; see Apprentice, Poor, Textiles, Weaving; capitalistic, 142; occupation of gentlewomen, 10, 138-140 passim, 142; refuge of paupers, 140-142 passim, 146; silk women, 140; stockings, 26 seq.; wages, 142.

Smith, 155, 189, 210, 259, 294.

Social position of women, 8, 40, 249, 283, 306 seq.

Southampton, 101, 195 seq.

Spinning, 5; see Poor, Linen-manufacture, Woollen; demand for, 95, 110, 112 seq., 124, 129, 146; domestic industry, 9, 40, 64, 96, 125, 129, 137, 147, 291 seq.; employment of poor, 13, 100, 110 seq., 128-137 passim, 146 seq., 209, 291; instruction in, 13, 111, 130-137; monopoly of women and children, 93, 102, 145, 292; organisation of, 107-113, 123 seq.; resource for mothers, 9, 13, 63, 95, 151, 209; wages; withdraws women from agriculture and service, 112, 115.

Spinner, 18, 102, 110, 113, 117, 120, 128 seq., 141, 221; market spinner, 107, 109 seq., 113.

Spinster, 95 seq., 107-109 passim, 112-136 passim, 147, 155, 221; classes of, 111 seq.

Spreading muck, 62.

St. Albans, 202.

Stapley, Richard, 125.

State, 242, 286, 299, 303, 307 seq.

Stationers, 158, 161-170 passim; see Companies.

Stumpe, 99; see Clothier.

Suckle calves, 47.

Surgeons, see Barber-surgeons.

Surgery, see Medicine.

Tailor, 155, 181.

Tanner, 185.

Thatching, 61.

Taylor, Randall, 58.

Teaching, 242, 265, 286 seq., 294 seq.

Textile Trades, 9, 93-149 passim, 150; see Burling, Capitalism, Carding, Clothiers, Cotton, Domestic Industry, Family Industry, Fuller, Gold and Silver, Knitting, Linen-manufacture, Silk, Spinning, Spinner, Weaver, Wage-earner, Wages, Woollen; industrial organisation of, 96; proportion of women’s labour, 93 seq., 97 seq., 114, 133 seq., 292; proportion of children’s labour, 108, 112, 114, 116, 133 seq.; women’s position in, 93 seq., 95, 146.

Thierry, Rachel, 100 seq.

Thornton, Mrs. Alice, 16.

Tiverton, 227.

Tobacco pipe makers, 192.

Torksey, 222.

Trades; see Crafts, Provision, Retail Textile; women’s occupation in, 10, 146, 293.

Turbeville, Mrs. Mary, 258 seq.

Upholsterer, 184, 195.

Vantrollier (wife of Thos.), 163.

Verney, Lady, 20; Sir Edmund, 15; Sir Ralph, 15, 20, 258.

Vintners, 209, 233 seq.

Village Community, 56, 253; disintegration of, 148; vigorous stock of, 42; women’s influence in, 148.

Vives, 37.

Wage-earner, 4, 6, 64-92 passim, 99; see Agriculture, Birth-rate, Butcher, Capitalism, Children, Infant Mortality, Journeyman, Marriage, Motherhood, Spinning, Silk, Textile-Manufactures, Wages, Widow, Wife, Woollen; definition of, 43, 65; children of, 86 seq.; class of undesirables, 90; combination among, 121-124 passim, 298, 301; family income, 65-69 passim, 71, 79 seq., 178; insolvency, 80-92 passim, 129, 146-149, 209, 293; numbers of, 4, 90 seq., 305; wife of, 9 seq., 76-89 passim, 235; her earning capacity, 68 seq., 89, 92, 147 seq., 209, 292; her virtual exclusion from skilled trades, 298.

Wages, 35, 59, 65, 100, 301; see Brewing, Carpenters, Doctors, Husbandmen, Linen-manufacture, Nurse (sick), Midwife, Miller, Poor, Spinning, Silk, Woollen; assessments, 50, 59 seq., 62, 65-67 passim, 72, 83, 90, 210, 293; difference between family and individual wages, 7, 296, 299; day labourers, men, 9, 56, 60-62 passim, 65 seq., 96; day labourers, women, 9, 60-66 passim, 68, 72, 89; servants, men, 50, 56, 65 seq.; servants, women, 50, 65, 157; married men, 65 seq.; not expected to keep family, 12, 86, 90, 293; relation to cost of living, 10, 68 seq., 79 seq., 83, 89, 95, 130, 134-137 passim, 145, 178; women’s, do not represent value of their work, 64, 137, 145, 291 seq., 304.

Weaver, 155, 259; see Apprentice; assault women, 126; complaints against clothiers, 114, 117-123 passim, domestic purposes, 40, 64, 125; linen, 18, 124 seq., 128, 136; women, 129; woollen, 18, 99, 111, 116; women, 102-106, 145; forbidden to weave cloth, 103; widow, 103 seq.; ribbons and tape; 104; silk, 138, 141; Wages, 120, 149.

Webber, 102, 221; see Weaver.

Webster, 102, 155, 221; see Weaver.

Weeding, 62, 89.

Wet-nurse, 26, 58.

Whipping dogs out of Church, 63.

Whit-awers, 191.

Winchcombe, John, 99.

Winnowing, 49.

Widow, 29, 33, 45, 86, 100, 122, 129, 137, 156, 171, 177, 189 seq., 195, 200, 201, 204 seq., 209, 213, 216, 218, 227, 230, 249-252 passim, 264, 268; see Apprentice, Housing, Journeymen, Poor Relief, Weaver; dependence on journeymen, 185, 189, seq., 261; membership in late husband’s gild, 160 seq., 168, 174, 176 seq., 179 seq., 183, 185, 187, 233 seq., 261, 298; pensions to, 69, seq. 170; of soldiers, 248 seq.; succession to late husband’s business, 11, 30-34 passim, 104 seq., 151, 154 seq., 160-163 passim, 167-173 passim, 188 seq., 215, 217, 221, 293.

Wife, 45, 70, 216, 237, 280; see Alehouse, Bakers, Business, Capitalist, Dairy, Doctor, Domestic, Farmer, Household Management, Husbandman, Journeyman, Mother, Pig-keeping, Poultry-keeping, Shop-keeper, Sick nursing, Spinning, Wage-earner; economic position of, 11, 292; membership in husband’s gild, 150, 160, 171 seq., 179 seq., 191, 261, 301; mutual dependence of husband and wife, 12, 41, 44, 49, 54 seq., 300-302 passim; pauperisation of wife, 92, 147, 149; wife provides food and clothes for family, 12 seq., 39, 60, 63, 90, 94 seq., 106, 112, 125, 137, 145, 291, 293, 304; separate business, 17, 40, 151-156 passim, 165, 175-178 passim, 194 seq., 202 seq., 206, 208, 214, 219, 221, 228 seq., 231; settlement, 80-89 passim; soldier’s wife, 142; subjection to husband, 16, 35, 41, 45, 197, 240, 302-304 passim; working in husband’s business, 29, 34 seq., 40 seq., 45, 95, 100-102 passim, 144, 151, 153-159 passim, 163, 172 seq., 175, 184-187 passim, 192 seq., 196 seq., 202 seq., 212, 215 seq., 220 seq., 229, 234 seq., 293 seq., 302.

Woollen manufacture, 42, 94, 97-124 passim, 126, 129, 138; see Clothiers, Drapers, Poor, Spinning, Weaver; capitalistic, 94, 96 seq., 123 seq., 147; domestic, 49, 106; family, 97, 106; dependence on women’s and children’s labour, 97 seq., 112, 114; fluctuations in trade, 98 seq., 110 seq., 118-122 passim, 147 seq.; instruction in, 110 seq.; men and women wage-earners unite in trade disputes, 116-123 passim; political power, 126; wages for spinning, 49, 95-97 passim, 100, 108 seq., 113-118 passim, 120, 122 seq., 124, 134 seq., 137; women’s position in, 98, 102 seq., 106, 124; wool-combers, 155.

Wycherley, 3, 37.

Yeoman, 9, 50, 76, 90.

York, 212.

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LIST OF STUDIES IN ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.

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A Series of Monographs by Lecturers and Students connected with the London School of Economics and Political Science.

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EDITED BY THE

DIRECTOR OF THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.

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=1. The History of Local Rates in England.= The substance of five lectures given at the School in November and December, 1895. By EDWIN CANNAN, M.A., LL.D. 1896; second, enlarged edition, 1912; xv. and 215 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 4s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=2. Select Documents Illustrating the History of Trade Unionism.= 1.—THE TAILORING TRADE. By F. W. GALTON. With a Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1896; 242 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. P. S. King & Son.

=3. German Social Democracy.= Six lectures delivered at the School in February and March, 1896. By the Hon. BERTRAND RUSSELL, B.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. With an Appendix on Social Democracy and the Woman Question in Germany. By ALYS RUSSELL, B.A. 1896; 204 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. P. S. King & Son.

=4. The Referendum in Switzerland.= By M. SIMON DEPLOIGE, University of Louvain. With a Letter on the Referendum in Belgium by M. J. VAN DEN HUEVEL, Professor of International Law in the University of Louvain. Translated by C. P. TREVELYAN, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge, and edited with Notes, Introduction, Bibliography, and Appendices, by LILIAN TOMN (Mrs. Knowles), of Girton College, Cambridge, Research Student at the School. 1898; x. and 334 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. P. S. King & Son.

=5. The Economic Policy of Colbert.= By A. J. SARGENT, M.A., Senior Hulme Exhibitioner, Brasenose College, Oxford, and Whately Prizeman, 1897, Trinity College, Dublin. 1899; viii. and 138 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. P. S. King & Son.

=6. Local Variation in Wages.= (The Adam Smith Prize, Cambridge University, 1898). By F. W. LAWRENCE, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 1899; viii. and 90 pp., with Index and 18 Maps and Diagrams. 4to, 11 in. by 8¼ in., cloth. 8s. 6d. Longmans, Green & Co.

=7. The Receipt Roll of the Exchequer for Michaelmas Term of the Thirty-first Year of Henry II. (1185).= A unique fragment transcribed and edited by the Class in Palæography and Diplomatic, under the supervision of the Lecturer, HUBERT HALL, F.S.A., of H.M. Public Record Office. With thirty-one Facsimile Plates in Collotype and Parallel readings from the contemporary Pipe Roll. 1899; vii. and 37 pp., Folio, 15¼ in. by 11¼ in., in green cloth; 2 Copies left. Apply to the Director of the London School of Economics.

=8. Elements of Statistics.= By ARTHUR L. BOWLEY, M.A., Sc.D., F.S.S., Cobden and Adam Smith Prizeman, Cambridge; Guy Silver Medallist of the Royal Statistical Society; Newmarch Lecturer, 1897-98. 500 pp. and 40 Diagrams, Demy 8vo, cloth. 1901; Third edition, 1907; viii. and 336 pp. 12s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=9. The Place of Compensation in Temperance Reform.= By C. P. SANGER, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Barrister-at-Law. 1901; viii. and 136 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=10. A History of Factory Legislation.= By B. L. HUTCHINS and A. HARRISON (Mrs. Spencer), B.A., D.Sc. (Econ.), London. With a Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1903; new and revised edition, 1911; xvi. and 298 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=11.The Pipe Roll of the Exchequer of the See of Winchester for the Fourth Year of the Episcopate of Peter Des Roches (1207).= Transcribed and edited from the original Roll in the possession of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners by the Class in Palæography and Diplomatic, under the supervision of the Lecturer, HUBERT HALL, F.S.A., of H.M. Public Record Office. With a Frontispiece giving a Facsimile of the Roll. 1903; xlviii. and 100 pp., Folio, 13½ in. by 8½ in., green cloth. 15s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=12. Self-Government in Canada and How it was Achieved: The Story of Lord Durham’s Report.= By F. BRADSHAW, B.A., D.Sc. (Econ.), London; Senior Hulme Exhibitioner, Brasenose College, Oxford. 1903; 414 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=13. History of the Commercial and Financial Relations Between England and Ireland from the Period of the Restoration.= By ALICE EFFIE MURRAY (Mrs. Radice), D.Sc. (Econ.), London, former Student at Girton College, Cambridge; Research Student of the London School of Economics and Political Science. 1903; 486 pp. Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=14. The English Peasantry and the Enclosure of Common Fields.= By GILBERT SLATER, M.A., St. John’s College, Cambridge; D.Sc. (Econ.), London. 1906; 337 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=15. A History of the English Agricultural Labourer.= By Dr. W. HASBACH, Professor of Economics in the University of Kiel. Translated from the Second Edition (1908), by RUTH KENYON. Introduction by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1908; xvi. and 470 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=16. A Colonial Autocracy: New South Wales under Governor Macquarie, 1810-1821.= By MARION PHILLIPS, B.A., Melbourne; D.Sc. (Econ.), London. 1909; xxiii. and 336 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. P. S. King & Son.

=17. India and the Tariff Problem.= By H. B. LEES SMITH, M.A., M.P. 1909; 120 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=18. Practical Notes on the Management of Elections.= Three Lectures delivered at the School in November, 1909, by ELLIS T. POWELL, LL.B., D.Sc. (Econ.), London, Fellow of the Royal Historical and Royal Economic Societies, of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law, 1909; 52 pp., 8vo, paper. 1s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=19. The Political Development of Japan.= By G. E. UYEHARA, B.A., Washington, D.Sc. (Econ.), London. xxiv. and 296 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 1910. 8s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=20. National and Local Finance.= By J. WATSON GRICE, D.Sc. (Econ.), London. Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1910; 428 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=21. An Example of Communal Currency.= Facts about the Guernsey Market-house. By J. THEODORE HARRIS, B.A., with an Introduction by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1911; xiv. and 62 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d. net; paper, 1s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=22. Municipal Origins.= History of Private Bill Legislation. By F. H. SPENCER, LL.B., D.Sc. (Econ.), London; with a Preface by Sir EDWARD CLARKE, K.C. 1911; xi. and 333. pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=23. Seasonal Trades.= By VARIOUS AUTHORS. With an Introduction by SIDNEY WEBB. Edited by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B., and ARNOLD FREEMAN, M.A. 1912; xi. and 410 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

24. =Grants in Aid.= A Criticism and a Proposal. By SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1911; vii. and 135 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. Longmans, Green & Co.

25. =The Panama Canal: A Study in International Law.= By H. ARIAS, B.A., LL.D. 1911; xiv. and 188 pp., 2 maps, bibliography, Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

26. =Combination Among Railway Companies.= By W. A. ROBERTSON, B.A. 1912; 105 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 1s. 6d. net; paper, 1s. net. Constable & Co.

27. =War and the Private Citizen=: Studies in International Law. By A. PEARCE HIGGINS, M.A., LL.D.; with Introductory Note by the Rt. Hon. Arthur Cohen, K.C. 1912; xvi. and 200 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. P. S. King & Son.

28. =Life in an English Village=: an Economical and Historical Survey of the Parish of Corsley, in Wiltshire. By M. F. DAVIES 1909; xiii. and 319 pp., illustrations, bibliography, Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. T. Fisher Unwin.

29. =English Apprenticeship and Child Labour=: a History. By O. JOCELYN DUNLOP, D.Sc. (Econ.), London; with a Supplementary Section on the Modern Problem of Juvenile Labour, by the Author and R. D. DENMAN, M.P. 1912; pp. 390, bibliography, Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. T. Fisher Unwin.

30. =Origin of Property and the Formation of the Village Community.= By J. St. Lewinski, D.Ec.Sc., Brussels. 1913; xi. and 71 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

31. =The Tendency Towards Industrial Combination (in some Spheres of British Industry).= By G. R. CARTER, M.A. 1913; xxiii. and 391 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net. Constable & Co.

32. =Tariffs at Work=: an outline of Practical Tariff Administration. By JOHN HEDLEY HIGGINSON, B.Sc. (Econ.), London, Mitchell Student of the University of London; Cobden Prizeman and Silver Medallist. 1913; 150 pp., Crown 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

33. =English Taxation, 1640-1799.= An Essay on Policy and Opinion. By WILLIAM KENNEDY, M.A., D.Sc. (Econ.), London; Shaw Research Student of the London School of Economics and Political Science. 1913; 200 pp., Demy 8vo. 7s. 6d. net. G. Bell & Sons.

34. =Emigration from the United Kingdom to North America, 1763-1912.= By STANLEY C. JOHNSON, M.A., Cambridge, D.Sc. (Econ.), London. 1913; xvi. and 387 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net. G. Routledge & Sons.

=35. The Financing of the Hundred Years’ War, 1337-1360.= By SCHUYLER B. TERRY. 1913; xvi. and 199 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net. Constable & Co.

=36. Kinship and Social Organisation.= By W. H. R. RIVERS, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. 1914; 96 pp. Demy 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=37. The Nature and First Principle of Taxation.= By ROBERT JONES, D.Sc. (Econ.), London; with a Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B., 1914; xvii. and 299 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=38. The Export of Capital.= By C. K. HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc. (Econ.), London, F.S.S., Shaw Research Student of the London School of Economics and Political Science. 1914; xxv. and 264 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=39. Industrial Training.= By NORMAN BURRELL DEARLE, M.A., D.Sc. (Econ.), London, Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford; Shaw Research Student of the London School of Economics and Political Science. 1914; 610 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=40. Theory of Rates and Fares.= From the French of Charles Colson’s “Transports et tarifs” (3rd edn., 1907), by L. R. CHRISTIE, G. LEEDHAM, and C. TRAVIS. Edited and arranged by CHARLES TRAVIS, with an Introduction by W. M. ACWORTH, M.A. 1914; viii. and 195 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 3s. 6d. net. G. Bell & Sons, Ltd.

=41. Advertising: a Study of a Modern Business Power.= By G. W. GOODALL, B.Sc. (Econ.), London; with an Introduction by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1914; xviii. and 91 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 2s. 6d. net; paper, 1s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=42. English Railways: their Development and their Relation to the State.= By EDWARD CARNEGIE CLEVELAND-STEVENS, M.A., Christ Church, Oxford; D.Sc. (Econ.), London; Shaw Research Student of the London School of Economics and Political Science. 1915; xvi. and 325 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 6s. net. G. Routledge & Sons.

=43. The Lands of the Scottish Kings in England.= By MARGARET F. MOORE, M.A., with an Introduction by P. HUME BROWN, M.A., LL.D., D.D., Professor of Ancient Scottish History and Palæography, University of Edinburgh. 1915; xi. and 141 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth, 5s. net. George Allen & Unwin.

=44. The Colonisation of Australia, 1829-1842: the Wakefield Experiment in Empire Building.= By RICHARD C. MILLS, LL.M., Melbourne; D.Sc. (Econ.), London; with an Introduction by GRAHAM WALLAS, M.A., Professor of Political Science in the University of London. 1915; xx., 363 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 10s. 6d. net. Sidgwick & Jackson.

=45. The Philosophy of Nietzsche.= By A. WOLF, M.A., D.Lit., Fellow of University College, London; Reader in Logic and Ethics in the University of London. 1915; 114 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net. Constable & Co.

=46. English Public Health Administration.= By B. G. BANNINGTON; with a Preface by GRAHAM WALLAS, M.A., Professor of Political Science in the University of London. 1915; xiv., 338 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 8s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=47. British Incomes and Property: the application of Official Statistics to Economic Problems.= By J. C. STAMP, D.Sc. (Econ.), London. 1916.; xvi. 538 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 12s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=48. Village Government in British India.= By JOHN MATTHAI, D.Sc. (Econ.), London; with a Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, L.L.B., Professor of Public Administration in the University of London. 1915; xix., 211 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 4s. 6d. net. T. Fisher Unwin.

=49. Welfare Work: Employers’ Experiments for Improving Working Conditions in Factories.= By E. D. PROUD, B.A., Adelaide; D.Sc. (Econ.), London, with a Foreword by the Rt. Hon. D. LLOYD GEORGE, M.P. 1916; xx., 363 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 7s. 6d. net. George Bell & Sons.

=50. Rates of Postage.= By A. D. SMITH, D.Sc (Econ.), London. 1917; xii., 431 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 16s. net. George Allen & Unwin.

=51. Metaphysical Theory of the State.= By L. T. HOBHOUSE, M.A., Martin White Professor of Sociology in the University of London. [In Press.] George Allen & Unwin.

=52. Outlines of Social Philosophy.= By J. S. MACKENZIE, M.A., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in the University College of South Wales. [In Press.] George Allen & Unwin.

Monographs on Sociology.

=1. The Material Culture and Social Institutions of the Simpler Peoples.= By L. T. HOBHOUSE, M.A., Martin White Professor of Sociology in the University of London, G. C. WHEELER, B.A., and M. GINSBERG, B.A. 1915; 300 pp., Demy 8vo, paper. 2s. 6d. net. Chapman & Hall.

=2. Village and Town Life in China.= By TAO LI KUNG, B.Sc. (Econ.), London, and LEONG YEW KOH, LL.B., B.Sc. (Econ.), London. Edited by L. T. HOBHOUSE, M.A. 1915; 153 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. George Allen & Unwin.

Series of Bibliographies by Students of the School.

=1. A Bibliography of Unemployment and the Unemployed.= By F. ISABEL TAYLOR, B.Sc. (Econ.), London. Preface by SIDNEY WEBB, LL.B. 1909; xix. and 71 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth, 2s. net; paper, 1s. 6d. net. P. S. King & Son.

=2. Two Select Bibliographies of Mediæval Historical Study.= By MARGARET F. MOORS, M.A.; with Preface and Appendix by HUBERT HALL, F.S.A. 1912; 185 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. Constable & Co.

=3. Bibliography of Roadmaking and Roads in the United Kingdom.= By DOROTHY BALLEN, B.Sc. (Econ.), London; an enlarged and revised edition of a similar work compiled by Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Webb in 1906. 1914; xviii. and 281 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 15s. net. P. S. King & Son.

=4. A Select Bibliography for the Study, Sources, and Literature of English Mediæval Economic History.= Edited by HUBERT HALL, F.S.A. 1914; xiii. and 350 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. P. S. King & Son.

Series of Geographical Studies.

=1. The Reigate Sheet of the One-inch Ordnance Survey.= A Study in the Geography of the Surrey Hills. By ELLEN SMITH. Introduction by H. J. MACKINDER, M.A., M.P. 1910; xix. and 110 pp., 6 maps, 23 illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. A. & C. Black.

=2. The Highlands of South-West Surrey.= A Geographical Study in Sand and Clay. By E. C. MATTHEWS, 1911; viii. and 124 pp., 7 maps, 8 illustrations, 8vo, cloth. 5s. net. A. & C. Black.

Series of Contour Maps of Critical Areas.

=1. The Hudson-Mohawk Gap.= Prepared by the Diagram Company from a map by B. B. Dickinson. 1913; 1 sheet 18″ by 22½″. Scale 20 miles to 1 inch. 6d. net; post free, folded 7d., rolled 9d. Sifton, Praed & Co.

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Printed in England by Headley Bros., Ashford, Kent, and 18, Devonshire St. E.C.2.

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● Transcriber’s Notes: ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book. ○ Text that: was in italics is enclosed by underscores (italics); was in bold by is enclosed by “equal” signs (=bold=).