Section Ii. Walls of Tracheids of Pith Ray Smooth, Without Dentate

projections.

a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.--Group 3. P. strobus, lambertiana, and other true white pines.

b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, including also P. balfouriana.

====

II.--RING-POROUS WOODS.

(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)

A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.

1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.

a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.

a.' Color of radial section not yellow.................ASH.

b.' Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized, ............OSAGE ORANGE.

b. Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30 .......................................CATALPA.

2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section .....................................SASSAFRAS.

3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.

a. Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. BLACK LOCUST.

b. Heavy; medium hard to hard.

a.' Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown. RED MULBERRY.

b.' Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........COFFEE TREE.

4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...HONEY LOCUST.

B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section.

1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........HACKBERRY.

2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................ELMS.

C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).

1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................CHESTNUT.

2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................OAK.

D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)

1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................HICKORY.

2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish .............................................PERSIMMON.

====

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.

Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color.

The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.

The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):

1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.

a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring .......................................WHITE ASH.

b. The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood .......................................GREEN ASH.

2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.

a. Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............RED ASH.

b. Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....BLACK ASH.

In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.

====

III.--DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS.

(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may seem to belong here.)

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.

1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown ..........................BLACK WALNUT.

2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown BUTTERNUT.

B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........CHERRY.

C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.

1. Broad pith rays present.

a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split. ................................SYCAMORE.

b. Only part of the pith rays broad.

a.' Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish white to reddish ....................BEECH.

b.' Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish .....................BLUE BEECH.

2. No broad pith rays present.

a. Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.

a.' Wood hard.

a." Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood ...........................MAPLE.

b." Color white, without reddish tinge ...........HOLLY.

b.' Wood soft to very soft.

a." Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith rays.

a.'" Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in heart-wood ........................TULIP POPLAR. CUCUMBER TREE.

b.'" Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark reddish brown ......................SWEET GUM.

b." Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to very light brown .........................BASSWOOD.

b. Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly visible.

a.' Pores indistinct to the naked eye.

a." Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section .....BUCKEYE.

b." Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith rays conspicuous on the radial section. SOUR GUM.

b.' Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish ..............................BIRCH.

D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.

1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky luster .................................COTTONWOOD (POPLAR).

====

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.

Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction is not always possible.

1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker, CHERRY BIRCH and YELLOW BIRCH.

2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight, CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH.

The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:

1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous ........................................SUGAR MAPLE.

2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.

a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross-section ...............RED MAPLE.

b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored. SILVER MAPLE.

Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy splitting, dark brown heart ............................RED ELM.

2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.

a. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so WHITE ELM.

b. Pores of spring wood small to minute.

a.' Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain ROCK ELM.

b.' Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces .........................WINGED ELM.

c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood .................................CEDAR ELM.

Fig. 138. Wood of Elm. a red elm; b, white elm; c, winged elm.]

INDEX.

Abies grandis, 96.

Acer dasycarpum, 172.

Acer macrophyllum, 170.

Acer rubrum, 174.

Acer saccharinum, 172.

Acer saccharum, 176.

Agaricus melleus, 236.

Agarics, 234, 236.

Alburnum, 17.

Ambrosia beetles, 242.

Angiosperms, 9.

Animal enemies, 239.

Arborvitae, Giant, 104.

Ash, 182-191, 296.

Ash, Black, 182, 298.

Ash, Blue, 186.

Ash, Hoop, 182.

Ash, Oregon, 184.

Ash, Red, 188, 298.

Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.

Bamboo, 10, 11.

Bark, 10, 13, 14.

Bark borers, 243.

Basswood, 14, 178, 301.

Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.

Beech, 134, 300.

Beech, Blue, 124, 300.

Beech, Water, 124.

Beech, Water, 162.

Bees, carpenter, 246.

Beetles, 241-246.

Betula lenta, 130.

Betula lutea, 132.

Betula nigra, 128.

Betula papyrifera, 126.

Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.

Birch, Black, 130.

Birch, Canoe, 126.

Birch, Cherry, 130.

Birch, Gray, 132.

Birch, Mahogany, 130.

Birch, Paper, 126.

Birch, Red, 128.

Birch, River, 128.

Birch, Sweet, 130.

Birch, White, 126.

Birch, Yellow, 132.

Bird's eye maple, 36.

Bluing, 234.

Bole, 211, 218.

Borers, 243-246.

Bowing, 47.

Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.

Brittleness, 53.

Broad-leaved trees. See Trees, Broad-leaved.

Browsing, 240.

Buckeye, 301.

Bud, 14, 16, 36.

Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.

Bullnut, 118.

Buprestid, 243.

Burl, 35.

Butternut, 144, 300.

Button Ball, 162.

Buttonwood, 162.

Calico poplar, 246.

Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.

Canopy, 204, 211, 212.

Carpenter worms, 245.

Carpenter bees, 246.

Carpinus caroliniana, 124.

Catalpa, 296.

Castanea dentata, 136.

Case-hardening, 48.

Carya tomentosa, 118.

Carya porcina, 122.

Carya alba, 120.

Cedar, Canoe, 104.

Cedar Incense, 295.

Cedar, Oregon, 108.

Cedar, Port Orford, 108.

Cedar, Red, 110, 223, 295.

Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.

Cedar, White, 106, 295.

Cedar, White, 108.

Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42.

Cells, Fibrous, 28.

Cellulose, 15.

Cerambycid, 243.

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, 108.

Chamaecyparis thyordes, 106.

Checks, 43, 47, 232.

Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.

Chestnut, 136, 298.

Cleaning, 218, 286.

Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.

Coffee Tree, 297.

Color of wood, 18.

Cold, 214, 216.

Coleoptera, 241.

Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.

Columbian timber beetle, 245.

Comb-grain, 54.

Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.

Compression, 51, 52.

Conch, 235.

Cones, Annual, 19.

Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.

Conservation of forests, 262.

Coppice, 220, 278, 279.

Cork, 13, 19.

Cortex, 13, 15.

Corthylus columbianus, 245.

Cottonwood, 301.

Cover, 211.

Crop, The Forest, 274.

Crown, 211, 227.

Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.

Curculionid, 243.

Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.

Cypress, Lawson, 108.

Decay, 235.

Deciduous trees, 10.

Dicotoledons, 9, 10.

Differentiation of cells, 16.

Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.

Distribution of species, 218.

Distribution of forests, 197-210.

Drouth, 213, 231.

Dry-rot, 234, 238.

Duff, 224, 251.

Duramen, 17.

Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.

Elm, 152-155, 298.

Elm, American, 154.

Elm, Cedar, 303.

Elm, Cliff, 152.

Elm, Cork, 152.

Elm, Hickory, 152.

Elm, Red, 302.

Elm, Rock, 152, 303.

Elm, Slippery, 14.

Elm, Water, 154.

Elm, White, 152.

Elm, White, 154, 302.

Elm, Winged, 303.

Endogens, 10, 17. See Monocotoledons.

Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.

Engraver beetles, 241.

Entomology, Bureau of, 247.

Epidermis, 13, 15.

Erosion, 273.

Evaporation, 42, 47.

Evergreens, 10.

Exotics, 227.

Exogens, 12, 16.

Fagus americana, 134.

Fagus atropunicea, 134.

Fagus ferruginea, 134.

Fagus grandifolia, 134.

Figure, 37.

Fir, 96, 294.

Fir, Douglas, 94.

Fir, Grand, 96.

Fir, Lowland, 96.

Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.

Fir, Silver, 96.

Fir, White, 96.

Fire, 232, 251-258.

Fire lanes, 257.

Fire losses, 253.

Fire notice, 258.

Fire trenches, 256.

Fire Wardens, 257.

Fires, Causes of, 252.

Fires, Control of, 256-258.

Fires, Crown, 255.

Fires, Description of, 254-256.

Fires, Fear of, 261.

Fires, Opportunities for, 251.

Fires, Statistics of, 253.

Fires, Surface, 252.

Floor, Forest, 213, 224.

Forest, Abundance of, 260.

Forest, Appalachian, 204.

Forest, Atlantic, 197.

Forest, Broadleaf, 202.

Forest, Eastern, 197-204.

Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.

Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.

Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.

Forest, Fear of, 260.

Forest, Hardwood, 197.

Forest, High, 281.

Forest, Hostility toward, 260.

Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.

Forest, Northern, 197, 216.

Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.

Forest, Productive, 274-277.

Forest, Protective, 271-274.

Forest, Puget Sound, 206.

Forest, Regular Seed, 281.

Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, 205.

Forest, Seed, 297-282.

Forest, Selection, 280-281.

Forest, Southern, 197.

Forest, Subarctic, 209.

Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.

Forest, Use of, 271-287.

Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.

Forest, Virgin, 280.

Forest, Western, 197.

Forestry, 271-287.

Forests, Composition of North American, 197.

Forests, National, 228.

Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.

Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.

Forest conservation, 262.

Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.

Forest crop, 274, 276.

Forest devastation, 261.

Forest fires, 251-258, 261.

Forest floor, 213, 224.

Forest improvement, 284-286.

Forest map, 198.

Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. 211-228.

Forest ownership, 262.

Forest planting, 282-284.

Forest preservation, 277-284.

Forest products, 276.

Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.

Fraxinus americana, 190.

Fraxinus nigra, 182.

Fraxinus oregona, 184.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 188.

Fraxinus quadrangulata, 186.

Frost, 232.

Frost-check, 232.

Fungi, 20, 233-239.

Ginko, 12.

Gluing, 54.

Goats, 240.

Grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.

Grain, Bird's eye.

Grain, coarse, 32.

Grain, cross, 33, 53.

Grain, curly, 35.

Grain, fine, 32.

Grain, spiral, 33.

Grain, straight, 33, 53.

Grain, twisted, 33.

Grain, wavy, 34.

Grazing, 239.

Group system, 279.

Grubs, 243, 244.

Gum, Black, 180.

Gum, Sour, 180, 301.

Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.

Gymnosperms, 9.

Hackberry, 297.

Hackmatack, 76.

Hardness of wood, 41, 54.

Hardwoods, 12.

Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.

Hemlock, 90, 295.

Hemlock, Black, 92.

Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.

Hicoria alba, 118.

Hicoria glabra, 122.

Hicoria ovata, 120.

Hickory, 118-123, 298.

Hickory, Big-bud, 118.

Hickory, Black, 118.

Hickory, Shagbark, 120.

Hickory, Shellbark, 120.

Hickory, White-heart, 118.

High Forest, 281.

Holly, 301.

Honeycombing, 48.

Hornbeam, 124.

Horn-tails, 246.

Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.

Hymenomycetes, 234.

Ice, 232.

Ichneumon fly, 247.

Identification of woods, 289-303.

Improvement of forests, 284-286.

Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.

Insects, 240-248.

Insects, parasitic, 247.

Insects, predaceous, 247.

Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.

Iron-wood, 124.

Juglans cinerea, 114.

Juglans nigra, 116.

Juniperus virginiana, 110.

Key for the distinction of woods, 292-303.

King-nut, 118.

Knot, 35, 37, 38.

Larch, 76.

Larch, Western, 78.

Larix americana, 76.

Larix laricina, 76.

Larix occidentales, 78.

Leaves, 14, 216.

Lenticels, 14.

Lepidoptera, 241.

Light, 216-218.

Lightning, 231, 251.

Lignin, 16.

Linden, 178.

Liquidambar styraciflua, 160.

Liriodendron tulipifera, 158.

Localized Selection system, 281.

Locust, 166.

Locust, Black, 166, 296.

Locust, Honey, 166, 297.

Locust, Yellow, 166.

Long-bodied trunk, 225.

Lumber consumption, 264.

Lumber, 9, 10.

Lumber prices, 267, 268.

Lumber production, 265-267.

Lumber, substitutes for, 264.

Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.

Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.

Lumberman, 260.

Magnolia acuminata, 156.

Magnolia, Mountain, 156.

Mahogany, 168.

Maple, 170-177, 301.

Maple, Hard, 25, 176.

Maple, Large Leaved, 170.

Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.

Maple, Red, 174, 302.

Maple, Rock, 25, 176.

Maple, Silver, 172, 302.

Maple, Soft, 172.

Maple, Sugar, 176.

Maple, White, 170.

Maple, White, 172.

Medullary rays. See Rays.

Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.

Merulius lachrymans, 234, 238.

Meteorological enemies, 229-233.

Mice, 237.

Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.

Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.

Mockernut, 118.

Moisture, 213.

Moisture in wood, 41, 52.

Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17. See also Endogens.

Mountain, 216.

Mulberry, Red, 297.

Mushroom, 236.

Mutual aid, 224.

Nailing, 53.

Needle-leaf trees, 12.

Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.

North Woods, 197, 218.

Nurse, 218, 219.

Nyssa sylvatica, 180.

Oak, 138-151, 298.

Oak, Basket, 142.

Oak, Black, 140.

Oak, Bur, 144.

Oak, Cow, 142.

Oak, Live, 201.

Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.

Oak, Over-cup, 144.

Oak, Post, 148.

Oak, Red, 138.

Oak, Stave, 150.

Oak, White, 150.

Oak, White (Western), 146.

Oak, Yellow bark, 140.

Odors of wood, 18.

Osage Orange, 296.

Organism, Forest, 211.

Padus serotina, 164.

Palm, 9, 17.

Paper pulp, 263.

Parasites, 233.

Parenchyma, 23, 28.

Pecky cypress, 234.

Peggy cypress, 234.

Pepperidge, 180.

Persimmon, 298.

Phanerogamia, 9.

Phloem, 13.

Picea alba, 80.

Picea canadensis, 80.

Picea engelmanni, 86.

Picea mariana, 84.

Picea nigra, 84.

Picea rubens, 82.

Picea sitchensis, 88.

Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.

Pignut, 122.

Pines, 58-75, 295.

Pine, Bull, 66, 205, 282.

Pine, Cuban, 74.

Pine, Georgia, 68.

Pine, Loblolly, 72.

Pine, Long-leaf, 68, 200.

Pine, Norway, 64.

Pine, Old Field, 72.

Pine, Oregon, 94.

Pine, Red, 64.

Pine, Short-leaf, 70.

Pine, Slash, 74.

Pine, Sugar, 62.

Pine, Western White, 60.

Pine, Western Yellow, 66.

Pine, Weymouth, 58.

Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.

Pine, Yellow, 70.

Pine sawyers, 244.

Pinus caribaea, 74.

Pinus echinata, 70.

Pinus heterophylla, 74.

Pinus lambertiana, 62.

Pinus monticola, 60.

Pinus palustris, 68.

Pinus ponderosa, 66.

Pinus resinosa, 64.

Pinus strobus, 58.

Pinus taeda, 72.

Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.

Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.

Pits, 26, 292.

Planting, 282-284.

Platanus occidentalis, 162.

Poles, 225.

Polypores, 234

Polyporus annosus, 237.

Polyporus sulphureus, 236.

Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301.

Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.

Powder-post beetles, 244.

Preservation of forests, 277-284.

Prices of lumber, 267, 268.

Primary growth, 17, 22.

Procambium strands, 16.

Protection against fungi, 239.

Protection against insects, 247.

Properties of wood, Chap II., p. 41.

Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41.

Pruning of branches, 286.

Prunus serotina, 164.

Pseudotsuga mucronata, 94.

Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 94.

Quartering a log, 45.

Quartered oak, 22.

Quercus alba, 150.

Quercus garryana, 146.

Quercus macrocarpa, 144.

Quercus michauxii, 142.

Quercus minor, 148.

Quercus obtusiloba, 148.

Quercus rubra, 138.

Quercus stellata, 148.

Quercus tinctoria, 140.

Quercus velutina, 140.

Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.

Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.

Red rot, 234.

Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.

Regularity of cells, 24.

Reproduction, 220.

Reserve sprout method, 279.

Resin ducts, 26, 291.

Rhizomorphs, 236.

Rind, 13.

Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.

Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290.

Rings, False, 19, 231.

Robinia pseudacacia, 166.

Rodents, 239.

Roots, 211, 224.

Rotation period, 279.

Rotting, 234.

Salix nigra, 112.

Sand dunes, 230, 231.

Saplings, 225, 226.

Saprophytes, 233.

Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.

Sassafras, 296.

Sawyers, Pine, 244.

Secondary growth, 17.

Section, cross, 21, 22, 29. See also Section, transverse.

Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.

Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.

Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.

Seasoning, 42.

Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12.

Seed forests, 279-282.

Seeding from the side, 279.

Seedlings, 225, 226.

Seeds, 220-223, 226.

Sequoia, 98.

Sequoia, 100.

Sequoia, Giant, 98.

Sequoia gigantea, 98.

Sequoia sempervirens, 100.

Sequoia washingtoniana, 98.

Settler, 258.

Shake, 47, 232, 233.

Shearing strength, 52.

Sheep, 240.

Shelf fungus, 234, 236.

Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.

Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.

Silver flakes, 22. See Rays, Medullary.

Silvical characteristics, 211.

Silvicultural systems, 278-284.

Slash, 229, 251, 257.

Slash-grain, 54.

Snow, 232.

Slash-sawing, 45, 47.

Softwoods, 12.

Soil, 211, 213.

Specific gravity. See Weight.

Splint-wood, 17.

Splitting. See Cleavability.

Spores, 234.

Spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Sprouts, 220, 222.

Spruce, 80-89, 295.

Spruce, Black, 84.

Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.

Spruce, Engelmann's, 86.

Spruce, Red, 82, 213.

Spruce, Sitka, 88.

Spruce, Tideland, 88.

Spruce, Western White, 86.

Spruce, White, 80.

Stand, mixed, 213, 223.

Stand, pure, 213, 223.

Standards, 225, 226.

Steamboats, 246.

Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.

Strength of wood, 41, 51-53.

Strip system, 279.

Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.

Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.

Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Swietenia mahagoni, 168.

Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.

Tamarack, 76, 296.

Tamarack, Western, 78.

Taxes on forests, 261.

Taxodium distichum, 102.

Tear fungus, 234, 238.

Temperature, 214.

Tension, 51, 52.

Texture of wood, 32.

Thuja gigantea, 104.

Thuja plicata, 104.

Tilia americana, 178.

Timber beetles, 242, 245.

Timber supply of U. S., 264-269.

Timber trees, 10.

Timber worms, 244.

Tissue, 16.

Toadstools, 234.

Tolerance, 216, 219.

Toughness of wood, 41, 54.

Tracheae, 23, 28.

Tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292.

Trametes pini, 235.

Trametes radiciperda, 237.

Tree, parts of, 211.

Treeless area, 197, 203.

Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29.

Trees, deciduous, 10.

Trunk, 13, 211. Long-bodied, 225. Short-bodied, 225.

Tsuga canadensis, 90.

Tsuga heterophylla, 92.

Tulip Tree, 158. See Poplar Yellow

Tupelo, 180.

Turpentine, 263.

Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.

Ulmus americana, 154.

Ulmus racemosa, 152.

Ulmus thomasi, 152.

Utilization of forests, 271-277.

Vegetable enemies, 233-239.

Veneer, 10, 35.

Vessels, 23, 28, 29.

Veterans, 225.

Walnut, Black, 116, 300.

Walnut, White, 114.

Warping, 45-47.

Waste, Avoidance of, 274.

Waste in lumbering, 263.

Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.

Weeds, Forest, 225.

Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.

Whitewood, 158.

Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.

Willow, Black, 112.

Wind, 229, 252, 253.

Windfalls, 229.

Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.

Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296.

Wood, Primary, 17.

Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., 41-56.

Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.

Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Wood, Structure of, 9-40.

Wood, secondary, 17.

Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Wood borers, 243.

Wood cells. See Cells.

Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.

Wood dyes, 18.

Wood fiber, 28.

Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.

Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-303.

Working, 47.

Worm-holes, 243.

Worms, carpenter, 245.

Worms, Timber, 244.

Wound parasites, 234.

Yew, 295.

Yield, 275.

Yucca, 10.

Books on the Manual Arts

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.

A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. It is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions for other similar projects together with information regarding tools and processes for making. A pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.

HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.

A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen drawings and many photographs.

WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.

A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author. Especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. Not too difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. Treats of wood, distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common woods by Filibert Roth. Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of sections. Contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and forest. Profusely illustrated with photographs from the United States forest service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes and photographs by the author. 309 pages.

WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.

A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. It meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting the minimum of time to manual training. A practical and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any order.

BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School. By Clinton S. VanDeusen.

A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems. The book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten working drawings.

PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.

A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agriculture and farm life. Especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities, and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of "Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools," "Directions," and "Assembly." A wonderfully practical book.

PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.

FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student. It contains a collection of plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement and the modeling of parts. The text discusses and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture. A practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing.

PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.

A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine inclusive.

SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.

A collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing. The projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of design, construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.

WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK--WOODWORKING. By George G. Greene.

A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a few general and extremely important directions about tools and processes; and provides space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc., which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop. The notebook is full of suggestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods and is an effective teaching tool.

PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

In the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood. It is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning.

WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.

This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering college students. It is a revised, enlarged, and newly illustrated edition.

CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.

This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization of courses, subject matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification and arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10, shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is practical.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.

A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction given by the teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs and numerous pen drawings.

PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.

A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. It consists of working drawings and working directions. The projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. The 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing the highest educational results. The book is especially suited for use in connection with "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.

FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.) By Ira S. Griffith.

This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes. It is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. On the plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed object. In draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior quality. It is in every respect an excellent collection.

PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.

This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes. Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. These have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school course. Each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution.

MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS. By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.

A direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical drawing. It covers two year's work and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what to do, almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem tests the ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique.

MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.

(Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school students which presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form. It is so written that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman. It is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding, pocket size. A thoroughly practical, modern textbook.

GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.

A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the 7th and 8th grades. It combines an abundance of text and simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. Its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and well illustrated.

MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS. By Charles H. Bailey.

A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners, in Junior High Schools, High and Continuation Schools. It successfully combines instructions which are minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials and technique of the work. The matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered.

PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. By George W. Seaman.

A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations and various details for successful dwellings. Numerous plates illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices, porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical designer in planning a house.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.

A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included in the plans for frame houses. Names and typical sizes are given and much information helpful to the student or draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," another "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing.

SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.

A book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. It is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.

WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.

The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking ever published. Treats of Common Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking Machines, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood Finishing, Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for the student, every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use. It contains 370 pages and 580 special illustrations.

CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.

A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of house construction in a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday" practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior finish." It meets every requirement as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use. It is well illustrated by photographs taken "on the job."

BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.

A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the energetic American boy. The projects are for the school, the home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every required dimension, and show each project complete and in detail. The text is in reality working directions telling just "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop.

SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.

A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs, how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials as a decorative element in furniture construction. Well illustrated, practical and authoritative.

FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.

The only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use. Contains detailed, practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery work. Describes necessary tools and materials. Abundantly and beautifully illustrated.

PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.

A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils, and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used in correct composition. A valuable feature of the book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands. It contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a Book," and the "Composition of Tables."

ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.

A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher. It treats of the various materials and their production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art metalwork with design and other school subjects. It describes in detail all the processes involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It gives new methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training shop. The standard book on the subject.

TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS. By Ira S. Griffith.

A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational teachers. Presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others, and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial arts. A book of value to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the educational expert; an exceptional source of information on the theory and practice of its subject.

THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.

A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. It states what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place as concerns general and vocational education, principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools, etc. Heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened judgment, the result of years of experience.

It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts.

EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.

A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home. Shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood, with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials required. Well illustrated with photographs and full-size pattern drawings.

TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.

A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal Rocking Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys, Freak Toys and Novelties. Each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size. They are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, size 10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design.

BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.

A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. The common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. A pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys.

MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP. By Harris W. Moore.

A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy" interest and new in the manual training shop. Full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text gives instructions for making, together with information on tools and tool processes.

KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.

An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. Also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. Abundantly illustrated and attractively bound.

THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES. By Charles M. Miller.

This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites, and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. Details of construction given; a kite tournament is described. Full of interesting suggestions.

COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.

Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. Has been called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."

SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.

A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it.

MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.

A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. It publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing things." It discusses vital problems in teaching the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development of manual training and vocational education. To the inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.

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Transcriber's Note:

Transcriber's Note: 'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means '1000 feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood', Chapter III, page 48. Also (ibid): "There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" x 6" x 15' / 12 = 71/2 feet."

In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer to their descriptive text.

Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g., 'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; 'Columbian Timber-beetle' and 'Columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph.