Part 15

Symons’s Rain Gauge resembles Howard’s, but has the advantage of having the glass receiver enclosed in a black or white japanned metal or copper jacket with openings permitting an approximate observation of the collected rain. The metal jacket is also furnished with strong iron spikes, which are firmly pressed into the soil, as shown at Fig. 49, thus ensuring perfect steadiness by its power to resist the wind. The graduated measure contains half an inch of rain (for a 5 inch circle) divided into 100ths.

Mr. Symons has devised another rain gauge of so ingenious and interesting a character that it needs only to become generally known among amateur meteorologists to be in universal demand. By its means an observer at a distant window may read off the rain as it falls. It is shown at Fig. 50, where the usual 5-inch funnel surmounts a long glass tube attached to a black board bearing a very open scale marking tenths of an inch in white lines; a white float inside the tube constitutes the index, which rises as the rain increases in quantity. If, as sometimes happens during a thunderstorm, the rainfall is excessive, a second tube on the left permits the measurement of a second inch of rain. It will be obvious that if the time at which the rain begins to fall be noted the rate at which it falls, as well as the quantity, is indicated at sight by this instrument.

Crossley’s Registering Rain Gauge has a receiving surface of 100 square inches. The rain falling within this area passes through a tube to a vibrating bucket, which sets in motion a train of wheels, and these move the indices on three dials, recording the amount of rain in inches, 10ths, and 100ths. Printed directions are furnished with each instrument, and the simplicity of the mechanism ensures due accuracy. A test measure, holding exactly five cubic inches of water, sent with each gauge, affords the means of checking its readings from time to time.

Beckley’s Pluviograph possesses the exceptional merit of recording with equal precision all rainfalls, from a slight summer shower to a heavy storm of rain. It may be placed in a hole in the ground, with the receiving surface raised the standard height of ten inches above its level.

Fig. 51 illustrates the construction of the instrument.

The funnel has a receiving surface of 100 square inches, protected by a lip 1-1/4 inch deep, to retain the splashes. The rain flows into a copper receiving vessel on the right, which, floating in a cistern of mercury, sinks and draws down with it a pencil, which records the event on a white porcelain cylinder moved by a clock. When the receiving vessel is full the syphon comes into action, rapidly drawing off the whole of the water, the vessel rising almost at a bound, the action being recorded by a vertical line on the porcelain cylinder. Two or more cylinders are supplied with each instrument; and, as the pencil marks are readily removed by a little soap and water, a clean one may be always kept at hand for exchange once in every twenty-four hours.

The Rev. E. Stutter’s Self-recording Rain Gauge is ingenious, and for a self-recording instrument is very moderate in price, while it efficiently shows the rainfall for every hour in the twenty-four (Figs. 52, 53).

An eight-day clock with its upright spindle revolves a small funnel with a sloping tube, the end of which passes successively over the mouth of the twelve or twenty-four compartments in the rim of the instrument; beneath each compartment is placed a tube, as shown in the sectional figure. All rain received by the outer funnel drips into the smaller revolving funnel, and flows down the sloping tube, the end of which is timed to take an hour in passing over each compartment, so that the rain, for example, which falls between twelve and one o’clock will be found in the tube marked 1. Each tube can contain half an inch of rain, and any overflow falls into a vessel beneath, and can be measured; the tube which has overflown shows the hour.

V.—MOTION.

Wind is air in motion. The motion of the air is caused by inequality of temperature. The earth becomes warmed by the sun, and radiates the heat thus acquired back upon the air, which, expanding and becoming lighter, ascends to higher regions, while colder and denser currents rush in to occupy the vacated space. Two points are to be noted in connection with this rush of air which we call wind, viz., its direction and velocity or force. Both are estimated scientifically by instruments called Anemometers, while mariners and the dwellers on our coasts have a nomenclature of their own by which to indicate variation in the force of the wind, founded on the amount of sail a vessel can carry with safety at the time. In the matter of direction winds are classed as constant, periodical, and variable.

CONSTANT WINDS.—The Trade Winds.—The violent contrast between the temperature of the equator and the poles is well known, and from the vast area included within the tropics ascending currents of rarefied air are incessantly rising and being as incessantly replaced by a rush of cold air from the poles to the equator. Were the earth stationary, this interchange would be of the simplest kind; on arriving within the influence of the ascending equatorial current the air from the poles would be carried to the higher regions and turning over would proceed to the poles, and, becoming cold and dense in traversing the higher stratum, would descend and resume its course ad infinitum. The revolution of the earth on its axis changes all this: the first effect is that the air at the equator is borne along with the earth at the rate of seventeen miles a minute from west to east, a rate which diminishes at 60° of latitude to one-half that velocity, until at the poles it is nothing; consequently a slow north wind flowing to the equator is continually passing over places possessing a higher velocity than itself, and not immediately acquiring that velocity, there is according to the law of the composition of forces a compromise effected resulting in a north-east wind. In a similar manner the same process in the southern hemisphere results in a south-east wind. These winds have acquired the name of Trade Winds on account of the facilities afforded to navigation by their constancy. The North Trades occur in the Atlantic between 9° and 30° and in the Pacific between 9° and 26°. The South Trades occur in the Atlantic between lat. 4° N. and 22° S. and in the Pacific between latitude 4° N. and 23-1/2° S. These limits extend northward with the sun from January to June, and southward from July to December.

Parallel to the equator and extending between 2° and 3° on each side is a broad belt, where the north and south trades neutralize each other, producing what is called the “Region or Belt of Calms.” Though wind is absent, thunderstorms and heavy rains are of daily occurrence.

When Humboldt ascended Teneriffe the trade wind was blowing at its base in the usual direction, but on arriving at the summit he found a strong wind blowing in the opposite direction. Observation has shown that this upper current prevails north and south of the equator, and that, after passing the limit of the trade winds, it descends to form the south-west winds of the north temperate zone and the north-west winds of the south temperate zone; the westing being due to the same cause as the easting in the regular trades, viz., the rotation of the earth on its axis. These winds are called the Return Trades, but are not equal in constancy to the regular trade winds.

PERIODICAL WINDS.—Land and Sea Breezes occur on the coasts, chiefly in tropical countries, but sometimes in Great Britain during the summer months when the land during the day becomes very hot, causing an ascending column of air, which is replaced by a comparatively colder stream flowing inwards from the sea. At sunset the conditions are reversed, the earth becomes rapidly cooled by radiation, the sea continuing comparatively warm, the air over it ascends, and its place is supplied by a cold breeze, which “blows off the shore,” as illustrated by the diagrams and the following experiment—In the centre of a large tub of water float a water plate containing hot water, imagine the former to be the ocean and the latter the heated land, rarefying the air over it. Light a candle and blow it out and hold it while still smoking over the cold water, when the smoke will be seen to move towards the plate. The reverse of this takes place if the tub be filled with hot water and the water plate with cold. When this phenomenon takes place on a large scale, as in the case of the north trade winds being drawn from their course by the heated shores of Southern Asia, the gigantic sea breeze thus produced is called the south-west monsoon. This occurs from April to October, when the sun is north of the equator. When the sun is south of the equator—that is, from October to April—the analogue of the land breeze is produced, and is called the north-east monsoon.

VARIABLE WINDS.—The character of this class of winds is determined by the physical configuration of the country in which they occur. Some tracts are marked by luxuriant vegetation, others are bare. Here mountains lift their awful fronts and “midway leave the storm,” there an arid plain extends itself to the seashore, or inland, towards a chain of lakes. Within the tropics these purely local conditions are insufficient to overcome the force of the prevalent atmospheric currents: such, however, is not the case beyond the tropical zone. There the variable winds prevail, for which space permits only the mention of their names:—The Simoom (from the Arabic samma, hot), peculiar to the hot sandy deserts of Africa and Western Asia. The Sirocco blows over the two Sicilies as a hot wind from the south. It extends sometimes to the shores of the Black and Caspian seas, spreading death among animals and plants. The Solano prevails at certain seasons in the south of Spain: its direction is south-east. The Harmattan is another wind of the same class, peculiar to Senegambia and Guinea. The Puna Winds blow for four months over a barren tableland called the Puna, in Peru. They are a portion of the south-east trade winds, which, having crossed the Pampas, are thereby deprived of moisture, and become the most parching wind in the world. The East Winds, peculiar to the spring in Britain, blowing as they do through Russia, over Europe, are a portion of the great polar current, distinctive of that season of the year. They are dry and parching, every one being familiar with the unpleasant bodily sensations attendant on this much-abused and yet most beneficent wind.

The Etesian Winds are drawn from the north across the Mediterranean by the great heat of the African desert. The Mistral is a strong north-west wind peculiar to the south-east of France. The Pampero is a north-west wind, blowing in summer from the Pampas of Buenos Ayres.

As long ago as the year 1600 Lord Bacon remarked that the preponderating tendency of the wind was decidedly to veer with the sun’s motion, thus passing from N. through N.E., E., S.E., to south, thence through S.W., W.N.W., to N.; also, that it often makes a complete circuit in that direction, or more than one in succession (occupying sometimes many days in so doing), but that it rarely backs, and very rarely or never makes a complete circuit in the contrary direction. The merit of having first demonstrated that this tendency is a direct consequence of the earth’s rotation is due to Professor Dove, of Berlin, who has also shown that the three systems of atmospheric currents just treated of, viz., the constant, periodical, and variable winds, are all amenable to the same influence.

As to the mode of observing the wind, Admiral Fitzroy recommends that a true east and west line should be marked about the time of the equinox, and the north, south, and other points of the compass being added, to take the bearings of the wind in relation to a dial so prepared, the indications of the lower stratum of clouds in conjunction with vanes and smoke being preferred to any other.

The direction of the wind should always be given according to true, and not to compass bearings. Two points to the westward nearly represents the amount of “Variation of the Compass” for the British Isles, which yields the following table for the conversion of directions observed by the compass in Great Britain and Ireland to approximate true bearings.

+---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Compass bearings. N | NNE | NE | ENE | E | ESE | SE | SSE | |True bearings. NNW| N | NNE | NE | ENE | E | ESE | SE | +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Compass bearings. S | SSW | SW | WSW | W | WNW | NW | NNW | |True bearings. SSE| S | SSW | SW | WSW | W | WNW | NW | +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

“One may call a very simple diagram, a circle divided by a diameter from north-east to south-west, the thermometer compass. While the wind is shifting from south-west, by west, north-west, and north to north-east, the thermometer is falling, but while shifting from north-east, by east, south-east and south, towards south and south-west, the thermometer is rising. Now the barometric column does just the reverse. From north-east the barometer falls as the wind shifts through the east to south-east, south, and south-west, and from the south-west, as the wind shifts round northward to north-east, the barometer rises—it rises to west, north-west, north, and north-east.

“The effect of the wind thus shifting round when traced upon paper by a curve, seems certainly wave-like to the eye; but I believe it to be simply consequent on the wind shifting round the compass, and indicating alteration in the barometric column.

“If the wind remained north-east, say three weeks, there would be no wave at all—there would be almost a straight line along a diagram (varying only a little for strength). The atmospheric line, in such a case, remains at the same height, and the barometer remains at 30 inches and (say) some three or four-tenths, for weeks together. So likewise when the wind is south-westerly a long time, or near that point, the atmospheric line remains low, towards 29 inches. Thus, such ‘atmospheric waves’ may be an optical delusion.

“The diagram alluded to above shows how the barometer and thermometer may be used in connection with each other in foretelling wind, and consequently weather, that is coming on, because as the one rises, the other generally falls, and if you take the two together and confront with their indications the amount of moisture in the air at any time, you will scarcely be mistaken in knowing what kind of weather you are likely to have for the next two or three days, which for the gardener, the farmer, soldier, sailor, and traveller must be frequently of considerable importance.”

We are indebted to M. Buys Ballot, a Dutch meteorologist, for an invaluable generalization, the importance of which it is almost impossible to over-estimate. This distinguished savant says:—“It is a fact above all doubt that the wind that comes is nearly at right angles to the line between the places of highest and lowest barometer readings. The wind has the place of lowest barometer at its left hand, and is stronger in proportion as the difference of barometer readings is greater.” These facts have been variously stated by other writers; for example: “Stand with your back to the wind, and the barometer will be lower on your left hand than on your right;” “Facing the wind the centre of depression bears in the right-hand direction,” statements which can be verified at any time by a brief study of the “Weather Charts” now published in the daily journals. The value of the law consists in its connecting the surface winds of our planet with the actual pressure of the air itself, and it admits of the following tabulation:—

+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | The wind is | The wind is | The wind is | The wind is | | NORTHERLY | SOUTHERLY | EASTERLY | WESTERLY | | when the | when the | when the | when the | | BAROMETER | BAROMETER | BAROMETER | BAROMETER | | is, in the | is, in the | is, in the | is, in the | | N. ⎫ | N. ⎫ | N. High. | N. Low. | | & ⎬ about | & ⎬ about | S. Low. | S. High. | | S. ⎭ equal. | S. ⎭ equal. | E. ⎫ | E. ⎫ | | E. Low. | E. High. | & ⎬ about | & ⎬ about | | W. High. | W. Low. | W. ⎭ equal. | W. ⎭ equal. | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

which can be verified by the reader from the daily Weather Charts in the newspapers.

The above are deductions from Buys Ballot’s Law, still further impressed on the memory by taking four outline maps of the British Isles, inserting the names of Thurso, Penzance, Yarmouth, and Valentia, with barometer readings of the kind above named at each place, and then drawing a large arrow in red ink across the centre of each map in the direction appropriate to the readings.