Part 11

Threatening, unsettled With an alternate rising and falling of weather the mercury.

Much wind, rain, hail, or When the mercury falls considerably. If snow, with or without the thermometer be low (for the season) lightning the wind will be N., if high, from S.

Lightning only When the mercury is low, the storm being beyond the horizon.

Fine weather With a rosy sky at sunset.

Wind and rain When the sky has a sickly greenish hue.

Rain When the clouds are of a dark Indian red.

Bad weather or much wind When the sky is red in the morning.

EXPLANATORY CARD. BY THE LATE VICE-ADMIRAL FITZROY, F.R.S., ETC. WEATHER GLASSES.

THE BAROMETER RISES | THE BAROMETER FALLS for Northerly wind | for Southerly wind (including from North-west, by | (including from South-east, by the the North, to the Eastward), | South, to the Westward), for dry, or less wet weather,--for | for wet weather,--for stronger less wind,--or for more than one | wind,--or for more than one of of these changes:-- | these changes:-- | EXCEPT on a few occasions when | EXCEPT on a few occasions when rain, hail, or snow comes from the | moderate wind with rain (or Northward with strong wind. | snow) comes from the Northward. -------------------------- For change of wind toward | For change of wind toward Northerly directions,-- | Southerly directions,-- | A THERMOMETER FALLS. | A THERMOMETER RISES. | Moisture or dampness in the air (shown by a Hygrometer) increases BEFORE rain, fog, or dew. -------------------------- On barometer scales the following | Add one-tenth of an inch to the contractions may be useful:-- | observed height for each hundred | feet the Barometer is above the RISE | FALL | half-tide level. | | FOR | FOR | The average height of the | | Barometer, in England, at the NORTH | SOUTH | sea-level, is about 29·94 inches; | | and the average temperature N.W.--N.--E. | S.E.--S.--W. | of air is nearly 50 degrees (London | | latitude). DRY | WET | | | The Thermometer falls about OR | OR | one degree for each three hundred | | feet of elevation from the ground, LESS | MORE | but varies with wind. | | ------ WIND. | WIND. | “When the wind shifts against | | the sun, ------ | ------ | Trust it not, for back it will | | run.” | | ------ EXCEPT | EXCEPT | First rise after very low | | Indicates a stronger blow. WET FROM | WET FROM | ------ | | Long foretold--long last, NORTH. | NORTH. | Short notice--soon past. (In South Latitude read South for North.)

IV.—CONDENSATION.

Dew is a deposition of moisture from the air, resulting from the condensation of the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere on substances which have become cooled by the radiation of their heat. This is, in fact, the substance of Dr. Wells’s famous Theory of Dew, enunciated in 1814, and which, according to Dr. Tyndall, “has stood the test of all subsequent criticism, and is now universally accepted,” and by which all the phenomena of dew may be explained.

Dr. Wells’s experiments were interesting and conclusive. He exposed definite weights (10 grains) of wool to the air on clear nights, one on a four-legged stool, the other under it, the upper portion gained 14 grains in weight, the lower only 4 grains. On an evening when one portion of wool, protected by a curved pasteboard roof, gained only 2 grains, a similar portion on the top of the miniature roof gained 16 grains. A little reflection will suggest the explanation: radiation from the wool was arrested by the pasteboard cover, while the portion fully exposed to the sky lost all its heat, and thus condensation ensued. Dr. Wells speaks with such candour, and so pointedly, on this fact and its consequences, that his words may be advantageously quoted: “I had often, in the pride of half-knowledge, smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible that a thin mat, or any such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining the temperature of the atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But when I had learned that bodies on the surface of the earth become during a still and serene night colder than the atmosphere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived immediately a just reason for the practice I had before deemed useless.”

Familiar instances of the formation of dew will have been noted by many “watchers;” e. g., breathing on a cold pane of glass, a tumbler of cold water becoming dew-covered on being brought into a warm room, the outside of a tankard of iced claret cup, &c. When, radiation is so free and rapid that the temperature is below the freezing point, the dew freezes as it forms, producing hoar-frost.

In our climate the air is never completely dry, nor completely saturated with moisture, and the amount of aqueous vapour held in suspension is very variable. This fact has important bearings on many branches of industry, as also on the hygienic qualities of the atmosphere. The consideration that a certain amount of moisture in the air is necessary to the continuance of health will suggest the importance of maintaining that due proportion in the atmosphere of sick rooms, where the artificial heat so injudiciously used, often disturbs the healthful hygrometric condition of the air. Mr. GLAISHER is of opinion that the medical profession should enforce, as far as lies in their power, the use of this simple and effective instrument, which gives indications so important to the comfort of the patient.

The amount of moisture in the air is estimated by the use of instruments called Hygrometers, which may be thus classified:—

1. Hygrometers of Absorption.—Made with hair, oatbeard, catgut, seaweed, grass, chloride of calcium.

2. Hygrometers of Condensation.—Regnault’s, Daniell’s, Leslie’s, Dyne’s.

3. Hygrometers of Evaporation.—Mason’s Psychrometer, or Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers.

By an ingenious application of the affinity of the oatbeard for moisture, Damp Detectors are constructed for tourists, commercial travellers, &c., to test moisture and avoid the consequences of sleeping in damp beds. They are strongly gilt, and resemble in size and shape a lady’s watch.

In Saussaure’s Hygrometer the frame is of brass, and the scale of the same metal silvered. It has an attached thermometer, and the indications are the result of the contraction and expansion of a prepared human hair, consequent upon its absorbing or yielding moisture. The scale is divided on the arc of a circle, and an index needle, working on an enlarged arc, multiples the indications.

Regnault’s Hygrometer (Fig. 39) consists of a thin and highly polished silver tube or bottle, into the neck of which is inserted a delicate thermometer. The bottle has a lateral tubular opening, to which is attached a flexible tube with an ivory mouthpiece.

Ether is poured into the silver tube in sufficient quantity to cover the bulb of the thermometer. The ether is then agitated by breathing through the flexible tube until, by the rapid evaporation thus produced, a condensation of moisture takes place, readily observable on the bright polished silver surface, and the temperature indicated by the thermometer at that moment is the dew-point.

Daniell’s Hygrometer, or Dew-point Thermometer (Fig. 40), consists of a glass tube, bent twice at right angles, each extremity terminating in a bulb about 1-1/2 inch in diameter, supported on a brass stand, to which a thermometer is attached to indicate the temperature of the surrounding air. The lower bulb is of blackened glass, to facilitate the observation of the dew-point; it is about three parts filled with pure ether, and contains a very delicate thermometer. The upper bulb at the extremity of the short stem is transparent, but covered with thin muslin, upon which, when an observation is made, pure ether is slowly dropped. The evaporation rapidly lowers the temperature, until a moment arrives at which dew condenses on the black bulb. A quick eye is necessary to note this and the temperature shown by the thermometer simultaneously, the latter showing the degree at which the atmosphere is saturated with moisture at the time of observation. To avoid error, it is usual to note the temperature at which the dew disappears, and take the mean of the two temperatures.

Dyne’s Hygrometer, for showing the dew-point by direct observation, by means of iced water and black glass, enables the observer to dispense with the use of ether, and shows the dew-point with great distinctness.

The hygrometer in most general use is the wet and dry bulb thermometer, and for which Mr. Glaisher has calculated an elaborate set of tables, a brief abstract of which sufficient for general purposes is subjoined.

For finding the Degree of Humidity of the Air from Observations of a Dry Bulb and a Wet Bulb Thermometer, sometimes called Mason’s Psychrometer.

+-------------+-----------------------------------------+ | |DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DRY BULB AND WET BULB | | | READINGS. | |TEMPERATURE +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | BY THE | | | | | | | | DRY BULB | 2° | 4° | 6° | 8° | 10° | 12° | |THERMOMETER. | | | | | | | | +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | | DEGREE OF HUMIDITY. | +-------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | 34° | 79 | 63 | 50 | ... | ... | ... | | 36 | 82 | 66 | 53 | ... | ... | ... | | 38 | 83 | 68 | 56 | 45 | ... | ... | | 40 | 84 | 70 | 58 | 47 | ... | ... | | 42 | 84 | 71 | 59 | 49 | ... | ... | | 44 | 85 | 72 | 60 | 50 | ... | ... | | 46 | 86 | 73 | 61 | 51 | ... | ... | | 48 | 86 | 73 | 62 | 52 | 44 | ... | | 50 | 86 | 74 | 63 | 53 | 45 | ... | | 52 | 86 | 74 | 64 | 54 | 46 | ... | | 54 | 86 | 74 | 64 | 55 | 47 | ... | | 56 | 87 | 75 | 65 | 56 | 48 | ... | | 58 | 87 | 76 | 66 | 57 | 49 | ... | | 60 | 88 | 76 | 66 | 58 | 50 | 43 | | 62 | 88 | 77 | 67 | 58 | 50 | 44 | | 64 | 88 | 77 | 67 | 59 | 51 | 45 | | 66 | 88 | 78 | 68 | 60 | 52 | 45 | | 68 | 88 | 78 | 68 | 60 | 52 | 46 | | 70 | 88 | 78 | 69 | 61 | 53 | 47 | | 72 | 89 | 79 | 69 | 61 | 54 | 48 | | 74 | 89 | 79 | 70 | 62 | 55 | 48 | | 76 | 89 | 79 | 71 | 63 | 55 | 49 | | 78 | 89 | 79 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 50 | | 80 | 90 | 80 | 71 | 63 | 56 | 50 | | 82 | 90 | 80 | 72 | 64 | 57 | 51 | | 84 | 90 | 80 | 72 | 64 | 57 | 51 | | 86 | 90 | 80 | 72 | 64 | 58 | 52 | +-------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

The total quantity of aqueous vapour which at any temperature can be diffused in the air being represented by 100, the percentage of vapour actually present will be found in the table opposite the temperature of the dry thermometer, and under the difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures. The degree of humidity for intermediate temperatures and differences to those given in the table can be easily estimated. Thus dry bulb 51°, wet bulb 46°, give 69 for the degree of humidity.