CHAPTER XII.

THE ATTEMPTS WHICH HAVE BEEN MADE TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSES OF VOLCANIC ACTION.

Every completed scientific investigation must consist of four series of operations. In the first of these an attempt is made to collect the whole of the facts bearing on the question, by means of observation and experiment; the latter being only observation under conditions determined by ourselves. In the second stage of the enquiry, the attention is directed to classifying and grouping the isolated facts, so as to determine their bearings upon one another, and the general conclusions to which they appear to point. In the third stage, it is sought to frame an hypothesis which shall embrace all the observed facts, and shall be in harmony with the general conclusions derived from them. In the fourth stage, this hypothesis is put to the most rigid test; comparing the results which must follow, if it be true, with the phenomena actually observed, and rejecting or amending our hypothesis accordingly. Every great scientific theory has thus been established by these four processes--observation, generalisation, hypothesis, and verification.

The enquiry concerning the nature and causes of volcanic action is far from being a completed one. It is true that many hypotheses upon the subject have been framed, but in too many instances these have not been based on accurate observations and careful generalisations, and can be regarded as little better than mere guesses. Indeed, the state of the enquiry at the present time would seem to be as follows. Although much remains to be done in the direction both of observation and experiment, the main facts of the case have been established upon irrefragable evidence. The classification and comparison of these facts have led to the recognition of certain laws, which seem to embrace all the known facts. To account for these facts and their demonstrated relations to one another, certain tentative hypotheses have been suggested; but in no case can it be truly said that these latter have so far stood the test of exact enquiry as to deserve to rank as demonstrated truths. A complete and consistent theory of volcanic action still remains to be discovered.

In accordance with the plan which we have sketched out for ourselves at the commencement of this work, we shall aim at following what has been the order of investigation and discovery in our study of volcanic action; and in this concluding chapter we shall indicate the different hypotheses by which it has been proposed to account for the varied phenomena, which we have discussed in the preceding pages, and their remarkable relations to one another. We shall endeavour, in passing, to indicate how far these several hypotheses appear to be probable, as satisfying a larger or smaller number of those conditions of the problem which have been established by observation, experiment, and careful reasoning; but we shall at the same time carefully avoid such advocacy of any particular views as would tend to a prejudgment of the question. Hypothesis is, as we have seen, one of the legitimate and necessary operations in scientific investigation. It only becomes a dangerous and treacherous weapon when it is made to precede rather than to follow observation and experiment, or when being regarded with paternal indulgence, an attempt is made to shield it from the relentless logic of facts. Good and bad hypotheses must be allowed to 'grow together till the harvest;' such as are unable to accommodate themselves to the surrounding conditions imposed by newly-discovered facts and freshly-established laws will assuredly perish; and in this 'struggle for existence' the true hypothesis will in the end survive, while the false ones perish.

It may well happen, however, that among the hypotheses which have up to the present time been framed, none will be found to entirely satisfy all the conditions of the problem. New discoveries in physics and chemistry have suggested fresh explanations of volcanic phenomena in the past, and may continue to do so in the future; and the true theory of volcanic action, when it is at last discovered, may combine many of the principles which now seem to be peculiar to different hypotheses.

Let us, in the first place, enquire what are the facts which must be accounted for in any theory of volcanic action. We have already been led to the conclusion that the phenomena exhibited by volcanoes were entirely produced by the escape of imprisoned water and other gases from masses of incandescent and fluid rock. Our subsequent examination of the problem confirmed the conclusion that in all cases of volcanic outburst we have molten rock-materials from which water and other gases issue with greater or less violence. The two great facts to be accounted for, then, in any attempted explanation of volcanic phenomena, are the existence of this high temperature at certain points within the earth's crust, and the presence of great quantities of water and gas, imprisoned in the rocks. We shall perhaps simplify the enquiry if we examine these two questions separately, and, in the first place, review those hypotheses which have been suggested to account for high temperatures in the subterranean regions, and, in the second place, examine those which seek to explain the presence of large quantities of imprisoned water and gases.

That a high temperature exists in the earth's crust at some depth from the surface is a £act which does not admit of any doubt. Every shaft sunk for mining operations, and every deep boring made for the purpose of obtaining water, proves that a more or less regular increase of temperature takes place as we penetrate downwards. The average rate of this increase of temperature has been estimated to be about 1° Fahrenheit for every 50 or 60 feet of depth.

Now if it be assumed that this regular increase of temperature continues to great depths, a simple calculation proves that at a depth of 9,000 feet a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit will be found--one sufficient to boil water at the earth's surface--while at a depth of 28 miles the temperature will be high enough to melt cast-iron, and at 34 miles to fuse platinum.

So marked is this steady increase of temperature as we go downwards, that it has been seriously proposed to make very deep borings in order to obtain supplies of warm water for heating our towns. Arago and Walferdin suggested this method for warming the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; and now that such important improvements have been devised in carrying borings to enormous depths, the time may not be far distant when we shall draw extensively upon these supplies of subterranean heat. At the present time the city of Buda-Pesth is extensively supplied with hot-water from an underground source. Should our coal-supply ever fail it may be well to remember that we have these inexhaustible supplies of heat everywhere beneath our feet.

But although we may conclude that at the moderate depths we have indicated such high temperatures exist, it would not be safe to infer, as some have done, that at a distance of only 40 or 50 miles from the surface the materials composing our globe are in a state of actual fusion. Both theory and experiment indicate that under increased pressure the fusing point of solid bodies is raised; and just as in a Papin's digester we may have water retained by high pressure in a liquid condition at a temperature far above 212° F., so in the interior of the earth, masses of rock may exist in a solid state, at a temperature far above that at which they would fuse at the earth's surface. We may speak of such rock-masses, retained in a solid condition by intense pressure, at a temperature far above their fusing point at the earth's surface, as being in a 'potentially liquid condition.' Upon any relief of pressure such masses would at once assume the liquid state, just as the superheated water in a Papin's digester immediately flashes into steam upon the fracture of the strong vessel by which it is confined. We have already seen how the action at volcanic vents often appears to indicate just such a manifestation of elastic forces, as would be exhibited by the relief of superheated masses from a state of confinement by pressure.

In reasoning upon questions of this kind, however, we must always be upon our guard against giving undue extension to principles and laws which seem to be clearly established by experiment at the earth's surface. It is well to remember how exceedingly limited is our command of extreme pressures and high temperatures, when compared with those which may exist within a body of the dimensions of our globe.

If we were to imagine a set of intelligent creatures, who were able to command only a range of temperatures from 50° to 200° F., engaged upon an investigation of the properties of water, we shall easily understand how unsafe it may be to extend generalisations far beyond the limits covered by actual experiment. Such beings, from their observation of the regular changes of volume of water at all the temperatures they could command, might infer that at still higher and lower temperatures the same rates of expansion and contraction would be maintained. Yet, as we well know, such an inference would be quite wide of the truth; for a little above 200° F. water suddenly expands to 1,700 times its volume, and not far below 50° F. the contraction is suddenly changed for expansion.

It has been argued by the late Mr. David Forbes and others that, inasmuch as experiment has shown that--though the fusing points of solids are raised by pressure, yet that this rise of the fusing points goes on in a diminishing ratio as compared with the pressures applied--a limit will probably be reached at which the most intense pressure will not be sufficient to retain substances at a high temperature in their solid state. The fact that gases cannot be retained in a liquid condition by the most intense pressure at a temperature above their critical point, may seem by analogy to favour the same conclusion. Hence, David Forbes, Dana, and other authors, have argued in favour of the existence of a great liquid nucleus in our globe covered by a comparatively thin, solid crust. And if we accept the supposed proofs of a constant increase of temperature from the surface to the centre of the globe, such a conclusion appears to be at least as well founded as that which regards the central masses of the earth as maintained in a solid condition by intense pressure.

A little consideration will, however, convince us that the facts which have been relied upon as proving the intensely heated condition of the central masses of our globe, are by no means so conclusive as has been supposed.

The earth's form, which mathematicians have shown to be exactly that which would be acquired by a globe composed of yielding materials rotating on its axis at the rate which our planet does, has often been adduced as proving that the latter was not always in a rigid and unyielding condition. In the same way, all the remarkable facts and relations of the bodies of the solar system, which have been shown by astronomers to lend such support to the nebular hypothesis, have been thought, at the same time, to favour the view that our earth is still in a condition of uncompleted solidification.

But it is quite admissible to accept the nebular hypothesis and the view that our globe attained its present form while still in a state of fluidity, and at the same time to maintain that our earth has long since reached its condition of complete solidification. And there are not a few facts which appear to lend support to such a conclusion.

If the rapid rate of increase in temperature which has been demonstrated to occur at so many parts of the earth's surface be maintained to the centre, then, as argued by David Forbes and Dana, it is difficult to conceive of our earth as being in any other condition than that of a liquid mass covered by a comparatively thin crust. The objection to this view, both upon geological and astronomical grounds, we have pointed out in the previous chapter.

Before accepting as a demonstrated conclusion this notion of a constant increase of temperature from the surface to the centre of our globe, it may be well to re-examine the facts which are relied upon as proving it.

That there is a general increase of temperature so far as we are able to go downwards in the earth's crust, there can, as we have seen, be no doubt whatever. Yet it may be well to bear in mind how very limited is the range of our observation on the subject. The deepest mines extend to little more than half-a-mile from the surface, and the deepest borings to little more than three-quarters of a mile, while the distance from the earth's surface to its centre is nearly 4,000 miles. We may well pause before we extend conclusions, derived from such very limited observations, to such enormous depths.

But when we examine critically these observations themselves, we shall find equal grounds for caution in generalising from them. There is the greatest and most startling divergence in the results of the observations which have been made at different points at the earth's surface. Even when every allowance is made for errors of observation, these discrepancies still remain. In some places the increase of temperature as we go downwards is so rapid that it amounts to 1° Fahrenheit for every 20 feet in depth, while in other cases, in order to obtain the same increase in temperature of 1° Fahrenheit, we have to descend as much as 100 feet.

Now if, as is so often assumed, this increase of temperature as we go downwards be due to our approach to incandescent masses forming the interior portions of the globe, it is difficult to understand why greater uniformity is not exhibited in the rate of increase in different areas. No difference in the conducting powers of the various rock-materials is sufficient to account for the fact that in some places the rate of increase in temperature in going downwards is no less than five times as great as it is in others.

Again, there are some remarkable facts concerning the variation in the rate of increase in temperature with depth which seem equally irreconcilable with the theory that the heat in question is directly derived from a great, central, incandescent mass. M. Walferdin, by a series of careful observations in two shafts at Creuzot, proved that down to the depth of 1,800 feet the increase of temperature amounted to 1° Fahrenheit for every 55 feet of descent, but below the depth named, the rate of increase was as much as 1° Fahrenheit for every 44 feet. On the other hand, in the great boring of Grenelle at Paris, the increase in temperature down to the depth of 740 feet amounted to 1° Fahrenheit for every 50 feet of descent, but from 740 feet down to 1,600 feet, the rate of increase diminished to 1° for 75 feet of descent. The same remarkable fact was strikingly shown in the case of the deepest boring in the world--that of Sperenberg, near Berlin, which attained the great depth of 4,052 feet. In this case, the rate of increase in temperature for the first 1,900 feet, was 1° Fahrenheit for every 55 feet of descent, and for the next 2,000, it diminished to 1° Fahrenheit for every 62 feet of descent. In the deep well of Buda-Pesth there was actually found a decline in temperature below the depth of 3,000 feet.

Perhaps the most interesting fact in connection with this question which has been discovered of late years, is that in districts which have recently been the seat of volcanic agencies, the rate of increase in temperature, as we go downwards in the earth's crust, is abnormally high. Thus at Monte Massi in Tuscany, the temperature was found to increase at the rate of 1° Fahrenheit for every 24 feet of descent. In Hungary several deep wells and borings have been made, which prove that a very rapid increase of temperature occurs. The deep boring at Buda-Pesth penetrates to a depth of 3,160 feet, and a temperature of 178° Fahrenheit has been observed near the bottom. The rate of increase of temperature in this boring was about 1° for every 23 feet of descent. In the mines opened in the great Comstock lode, in the western territories of the United States, an abnormally high temperature has been met with amounting in some cases to 157° Fahrenheit. Although this is the richest mineral-vein in the world, having yielded since 1859, when it was first discovered, 60,000,000l. worth of gold and silver, this rapid increase in temperature in going downwards threatens in the end to entirely baffle the enterprise of the miner. The rate of increase in temperature in the case of the Comstock mines has been estimated at 1° Fahrenheit for every 46 feet of descent, between 1,000 and 2,000 feet from the surface, but as much as 1° Fahrenheit for every 25 feet, at depths below 2,000 feet.

The facts which we have stated, with others of a similar kind, have led geologists to look with grave feelings of doubt upon the old hypothesis which regarded the increase of temperature found in making excavations into the earth's crust as a proof that we are approaching a great incandescent nucleus. They have thus been led to enquire whether there are any conceivable sources of high temperatures at moderate depths--temperatures which would be quite competent to produce locally all the phenomena of volcanic action.

There are not wanting other facts which seem to point to the same conclusion: namely, that volcanic action is not due to the existence of a universal reservoir of incandescent material occupying the central portion of our globe, but to the local development of high temperatures at moderate depths from the surface.

The close connection between the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes cannot be doubted. It is true that some of those vibrations or tremors of the earth's crust, to which we apply the name of earthquakes, occur in areas which are not now the seat of volcanic action; and it is equally true that the stratified rock-masses of our globe, far away from any volcanic centres, exhibit proofs of violent movement and fracture, in the production of which, concussions giving rise to earthquake vibrations, could scarcely fail to have occurred. But it is none the less certain that earthquakes as a rule take place in those areas which are the seats of volcanic action, and that great earthquake-shocks precede and accompany volcanic outbursts. Sometimes, too, it has been noticed that the manifestation of activity at a volcanic centre is marked by the sudden decline of the earthquake-tremors of the district around, as though a safety-valve had been opened at that part of the earth's surface.

Mr. Mallet has shown that by the careful study of the effects produced at the surface by earthquake-vibrations, we may determine with considerable accuracy the point at which the shock or concussion occurred which gave rise to the vibration. Now it is a most remarkable fact that such calculations have led to the conclusion that, so far as is at present known, earthquake shocks never originate at greater depths than thirty miles from the surface, and that in some cases the focus from which the waves of elastic compression producing an earthquake proceed is only at the depth of seven or eight miles. As we have already seen, there can be no doubt that in the great majority of instances the forces originating earthquake-vibrations and volcanic outbursts are the same, and independent lines of reasoning have conducted us to the conclusion that these forces operate at very moderate distances from the earth's surface.

Under these circumstances, geologists have been led to enquire whether there are any means by which we can conceive of such an amount of heat, as would be competent to produce volcanic outbursts, being locally developed at certain points within the earth's crust. Recent discoveries in physical science which have shown the close relation to one another of different kinds of force, and their mutual convertibility, have at least suggested the possibility of the existence of causes by which such high temperatures within certain portions of the earth's crust may be originated.

When, at the commencement of the present century, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the remarkable metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and at the same time demonstrated the striking phenomena which are exhibited if these metals be permitted to unite with oxygen, he at once perceived that if such metals existed in an uncombined condition within the earth's crust, the access of water and air to the mass might give rise to the development of such an amount of heat, as would be competent to produce volcanic phenomena at the surface. It is true that at a later date Davy recognised the chemical theory of volcanoes as being beset with considerable difficulties, and was disposed to abandon it altogether. It was argued, with considerable show of reason, that if the heat at volcanic centres were produced by the access of water to metallic substances, great quantities of hydrogen would necessarily be evolved, and this gas ought to be found in prodigious quantities among the emanations of volcanoes. The fact that such enormous quantities of hydrogen gas are not emitted from volcanic vents has been held by many authors to be fatal to the chemical theory of volcanoes.

But the later researches of Graham and others have made known facts which go far towards supplying an answer to the objections raised against the chemical theory of volcanoes. Various solids and liquids have been shown to possess the power of absorbing many times their volume of certain gases. Among the gases thus absorbed in large quantities by solids and liquids, hydrogen is very conspicuous. In some cases gases are absorbed by metals or other solids in a state of fusion, and yielded up again by them as they cool.

It is a very remarkable circumstance that some meteorites are found to have absorbed large quantities of hydrogen gas, and this is given off when they are heated in vacuo. Thus it has been demonstrated that certain meteorites have contained as much as forty seven times their own volume of hydrogen gas.

We have already pointed out that there are reasons for believing the internal portions of our globe to be composed of materials similar to those found in meteorites. If such be the case, the access of water to these metallic substances may result in the formation of oxides, attended with a great local development of heat, the hydrogen which is liberated being at once absorbed by the surrounding metallic substances. That this oxidation of the metallic substances in the interior of our globe by the access of water and air from the surface is continually going on, can scarcely be doubted. We may even look forward to a far-distant period when the whole of the liquid and gaseous envelopes of the globe shall have been absorbed into its substance, and our earth thereby reduced to the condition in which we now find the moon to be.

There is a second method by which high temperatures might be locally developed within the earth's crust, which has been suggested by Vose, Mallet, and other authors.

We have good grounds for believing that the temperature of our globe is continually diminishing by its radiation of heat into space. This cooling of our globe is attended by contraction, which results in movements of portions of its crust. It may at first sight appear that such movements would be so small and insignificant as to be quite unworthy of notice. But if we take into account the vast size of our earth it will be seen that the movements of such enormous masses may be attended with the most wonderful results.

It has been shown that if a part of the earth's crust fifty miles in thickness were to have its temperature raised 200° Fahrenheit, its surface would be raised to the extent of 1,000 or 1,500 feet Le Conte has pointed out that if we conceive the conduction of heat to take place at slightly different rates along different radii of our globe, we should at once be able to account for the existing inequalities of the earth's surface, and for all those continental movements which can be shown to have taken place in past geological periods.

But if we admit, as we have good grounds for doing, that the loss of heat from the external portions of our globe goes on more rapidly than in the case of the central masses, we have thereby introduced another powerful agent for the production of high temperatures within the earth's crust. The external shell of the globe will tend to contract upon the central mass, and in so doing a series of tangential strains will result which will be capable of folding and crumpling the rocks along any lines of weakness. That such crushing and crumpling has during all geological periods taken place along lines of weakness in the earth's crust, is proved, as we have seen, by the phenomena presented by mountain-ranges. Now these crushings, crumplings, and other violent movements of great rock-masses must result in the development of a vast amount of heat, just as the forcing down of a break upon a moving wheel produces heat. This conclusion is strikingly confirmed by the well-known geological fact that nearly all rocks which have undergone great movement and contortion are found to present evidence of having been subjected to such chemical and crystalline actions, as would result from the development of a high temperature within their mass.

Let us sum up briefly the various methods which have been suggested to account for the high temperatures within certain parts of the earth's crust by which volcanic phenomena are produced.

Our globe may be conceived of as an incandescent liquid mass surrounded by a cooler, solid shell. If we regard this liquid interior mass as supplying directly the various volcanic vents of the earth, it must be conceded that the outer shell is of comparatively slight thickness. But astronomers are almost universally agreed that such a thin outer shell and inner liquid mass are quite incompatible with that rigidity which our planet exhibits under the attractions of its neighbours. Geologists are almost equally unanimous in regarding this hypothesis of a liquid nucleus and thin, solid shell as contradicted by the stability of the conditions which have been maintained during such long past periods, and which exist at the present day. The extent and character of volcanic action do not indicate a condition of general instability in our earth, but one of stability subject to small and local interferences The grandest volcanic disturbances appear small and insignificant, if we take into account the vast dimensions of the globe upon which they are displayed.

If, on the other hand, we consider the outer solid shell to be of great thickness, we are met by the difficulty of accounting for the upheaval of liquid matter through such vast thicknesses of a solid shell. The differences in character of lavas extruded from closely adjoining volcanic districts seem equally difficult of explanation on any theory of a central, fluid nucleus and a solid, outer shell. Nor is the distribution of heat within the earth's crust so uniform as might be anticipated, if the source of that heat be a great central mass of highly heated materials.

Under these circumstances, geologists and physicists have enquired whether any other conditions can be imagined as existing in the earth's interior, which would better account for the observed phenomena than does the hypothesis of a liquid nucleus and a solid outer shell. Two such alternative hypotheses have been suggested.

Mr. Hopkins, adopting the theory that the earth has solidified both at the centre and its outer surface, endeavoured to explain the occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes by supposing that cavities of liquid material have been left between the solid nucleus and the solid shell, and these cavities full of liquid material constitute the sources from which the existing volcanoes of the globe draw their supplies. But this hypothesis is found to be beset with many difficulties when we attempt to apply it to the explanation of the phenomena of volcanic action. It entirely fails, among other things, to account for the remarkable fact that during past geological periods the scene of volcanic action has been continually shifting over the surface of the earth, so that there is probably no considerable area of our globe which has not at one time or other been invaded by the volcanic forces.

By some other theorists, who have felt the full force of this last objection, an attempt has been made to explain the phenomena of volcanoes by supposing that the globe is solid from its surface to its centre, but that the internal portions of the globe are at such a high temperature that they are only retained in a solid condition by the enormous pressure to which they are subjected. The central masses of the globe are thus regarded as being in an actually solid, but in a potentially liquid condition, and any local relief of pressure is at once followed by the conversion of solid to liquefied materials, in the district where the relief takes place, resulting in the manifestation of volcanic phenomena at the spot. It may be granted that this hypothesis better accords with the known facts of Vulcanology than any of those which we have previously described, but it is impossible to shut our eyes to the fact that not a few serious difficulties still remain. Thus it is based upon the assumption that the law of the elevation of the point of fusion by pressure is true at temperatures and pressures almost infinitely above those at which we are able to conduct observations; but neither experiment nor analogy warrant this conclusion, for the former shows that the elevation of the point of fusion by pressure goes on in a continually diminishing ratio, and the latter famishes us with the example of volatile liquids which, above their critical points, obstinately remain in a gaseous condition under the highest pressures. Nor is it easy upon this hypothesis to account for the very irregular distribution of temperatures within the earth's crust, as demonstrated by observations in mines, wells, and borings. The hypothesis further requires the assumption that, at such very moderate depths as are required for the reservoirs of volcanoes, the effects of pressure and temperature on the condition of rock-materials are so nicely balanced that the smallest changes at the surface lead to a disturbance of the equilibrium.

It is the weight of these several objections that has led geologists in recent years to regard with greater favour those hypotheses which seek to account for the production of high temperatures within parts of the earth's crust, without having recourse to a supposed incandescent nucleus. If it can be shown that there are any chemical or mechanical forces at work within the crust of the globe which are capable of producing local elevations of temperature, then we may conceive of a condition of things existing in the earth's interior which is free from the objections raised by the astronomer on the score of the earth's proved rigidity, and by the geologist on the ground of its general stability, and which at the same time seems to harmonise better with the observed facts of the distribution of temperature within the earth's crust. How far the existence of such chemical and mechanical agencies capable of producing high temperatures within the crust of the globe have been substantiated, we have already endeavoured to point out.

It must be admitted, then, that the questions of the nature of the earth's interior and the cause of the high temperatures which produce volcanic phenomena, are still open ones. We have not yet got beyond the stage of endeavouring to account for the facts observed by means of tentative hypotheses. Some of these, as we have seen, agree with the facts, so far as they are at present known, much better than others; but the decision between them or the rejection of the whole of them in favour of some new hypothesis, must depend on the results of future observation and enquiry.

It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remark that they are all equally reconcilable with the nebular theory of Kant and Laplace. Granting that the matter composing our globe has passed successively through the gaseous and liquid conditions, it is open to us to imagine the earth as now composed of a liquid nucleus with either a thick or a thin solid shell; of a solid nucleus and a solid shell with more or less liquid matter between them; or, lastly, to conceive of it as having become perfectly solid from the centre to the surface.

But it is not upon the existence of a high temperature within certain parts of the earth's crust that the production of volcanic activity alone depends. The presence of water and other liquid and gaseous substances in a state of the most intimate admixture with the fused rock-masses, is, as we have seen, the main cause of the violent displays of energy exhibited at volcanic centres. And We shall now proceed to notice the hypotheses which have been suggested to account for the presence of these liquid and gaseous bodies in the midst of the masses of incandescent materials poured out from volcanic vents.

There is an explanation of this presence of water and various gases in the masses of molten rock-materials within the earth's crust which at once suggests itself, and which was formerly very generally accepted. Volcanoes, as we have seen, are usually situated near coast-lines, and if we imagine fissures to be produced by which sea-water finds access to masses of incandescent rock-materials, then we can regard volcanic outbursts as resulting from this meeting of water with rock-masses in a highly healed condition. This supposition has been thought to receive much support from the fact that many of the gases evolved from volcanic vents are such as would be produced by the decomposition of substances present in sea-water.

But it frequently happens that an explanation which at first sight appears to be very simple and obvious, turns out on more critical examination to be quite the reverse, and this is the case with the supposed origination of volcanic outbursts by the access of sea-water to incandescent rock-material by means of earth-fissures. It is difficult to understand how, by such means, that wonderfully intimate union between the liquefied rock and the water, evolved in such quantities during volcanic outbursts, could be brought about; and moreover, we can scarcely regard the production of fissures in the earth's crust as being at the same time both the cause and the effect of this influx of water to the deep-seated rock-masses at a high temperature.

During recent years the attention of both geologists and physicists has been directed to a remarkable property exhibited by many liquids and solids, as supplying a possible explanation of the phenomena of volcanic action. The property to which we refer is that whereby some liquid and solid substances are able to absorb many times their volume of certain gases--which gases under different conditions may be given off again from the liquids or solids. This power of absorption is a very remarkable one; it is not attended with chemical combination, but the amount of condensation which gases must undergo within the solid or liquid substances is sometimes enormous. Water may be made to absorb more than 1,000 times its volume of ammonia, and more than 500 times its volume of hydrochloric acid. Alcohol may absorb more than 300 times its volume of sulphurous acid. Charcoal may absorb 100 times its volume of ammonia, 85 times its volume of hydrochloric acid, 65 times its volume of sulphuretted hydrogen, 55 times its volume of sulphurous acid, and 35 times its volume of carbonic acid. Platinum-black absorbs many times its volume of oxygen and other gases.

This power of absorption of gases varies in different solids and liquids according to the conditions to which they are subjected. Dr. Henry showed it to be a general law in liquids that, as the pressure is augmented, the weight of the gas absorbed is proportionately increased.

Sometimes this absorption of gases takes place only at high temperatures. Thus silver in a state of fusion is able to absorb 22 times its volume of oxygen gas. When the metal is allowed to cool this gas is given off, and if the cooling takes place suddenly a crust is formed on the surface, and the phenomenon known as the 'spitting of silver' is exhibited. Sometimes during this operation miniature cones and lava-streams are formed on the surface of the cooling mass, which present a striking resemblance to those formed on a grand scale upon the surface of the globe. Similar phenomena are exhibited by several other metals and by the oxide of lead.

The researches of Troost and others have shown that molten iron and steel possess the property of absorbing considerable quantities of oxygen, hydrogen, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide, and that these gases are given off in the operation known as 'seething,' when either the pressure or the temperature is diminished.

Hochstetter has shown that in the process of extracting sulphur from the residues obtained during the manufacture of soda, some very interesting phenomena are manifested. The molten sulphur is exposed to a temperature of 262° Fahrenheit, and a pressure of two or three atmospheres, in the presence of steam; under these circumstances it is found that the sulphur absorbs a considerable quantity of water, which is given off again with great violence from the mass as it undergoes solidification. The hardened crust which forms on the surface of the molten sulphur is agitated and fissured, miniature cones and lava-streams being formed upon it, which have a striking resemblance to the grander phenomena of the same kind exhibited upon the crust of the globe.

The observations which we have described prove conclusively that many liquids and solids in a molten condition have the power of absorbing many times their volume of certain gases, and that this action is aided by heat and pressure.

That the molten materials which issue from volcanic vents have absorbed enormous quantities of steam and other gases, we have the most undisputable evidence. The volume of such gases given off during volcanic outbursts, and while the lava-streams are flowing and consolidating, is enormous, and can only be accounted for by supposing that the masses of fluid rock have absorbed many times their volume of the gases. But we have another not less convincing proof of the same fact in the circumstance that volcanic materials which have consolidated under great pressure--such as granites, gabbros, porphyries, &c.--exhibit in their crystals innumerable cavities containing similar gases in a liquefied state.

It is to the violent escape of these gases from the molten rock-masses, as the pressure upon them is relieved, that nearly all the active phenomena of volcanoes must be referred; and it was the recognition of this bet by Spallanzani, while he was watching the phenomena displayed in the crater of Stromboli, which laid the foundations of the science of Vulcanology.

But here another question presents itself to the investigator of the phenomena of volcanoes: it is this. At what period did the molten rock-masses issuing from vents absorb those gaseous materials which are given off so violently from their midst during eruptions? Two different answers to this question have been suggested. It may be that the original materials of which our globe was composed consisted of metallic substances in a state of fusion which had absorbed many gases, and that, in the fluid masses below the solid crust, vast quantities of vapour and gas are stored up, which are being gradually added to the atmosphere during volcanic outbursts. The fact that meteorites, which, as we have seen, in all probability closely resemble the materials forming the earth's interior, sometimes yield many times their volume of hydrogen and other gases, may be thought to lend some support to this idea. If it be the correct one, we must regard our globe as gradually parting with its pent-up stores of energy, in those absorbed gases and vapours held in bondage by the solid and fluid materials of its interior.

But there is another hypothesis which is, to say the least, equally probable. Water containing various gases in solution is continually finding its way downwards by infiltration into the earth's crust. Much of this water, after passing through pervious beds, reaches some impervious stratum and is returned to the surface in the form of springs. But that some of this percolating water penetrates to enormous depths is shown by the fact that the deepest mines and borings encounter vast underground supplies of water. When we remember that nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered by the waters of the ocean, and that the average depth of these oceanic waters is more than 10,000 feet, we may easily understand how great a portion of the earth's crust must be penetrated by infiltrating waters which can find no outlet in springs. The penetration of the waters of the ocean into the earth's crust will be aided, too, by the enormous pressure amounting to not less than several tons to the square-inch upon the greater part of the ocean-floor. It might be thought that this downward penetration of water would be counteracted by the upward current of steam that would be produced as these subterranean waters reach the hotter portions of the earth's crust. But the experiments of Daubrée have conclusively shown that the penetration of water through rocks takes place in opposition to the powerful pressure of steam in the contrary direction. Hence, we may assume that certain quantities of water, containing various gases and solids in solution, are continually finding their way by capillary infiltration from the surface to the deeply seated portions of the earth's crust, there to undergo absorption by the incandescent rock-masses and to produce oxidation of some of their materials.

The deep-sea soundings of the 'Challenger' have shown that the floor of the ocean is constantly maintained at a temperature but little above that of the freezing point of water. This low temperature is probably produced by the absorption of heat from the earth's crust by the waters of the ocean, which distribute it by means of convection currents on the grandest scale. Hence, the isogeotherms, or lines indicating the depths at which the same mean temperature is found within the earth's crust, are probably depressed beneath the great ocean-floors, and rise towards the land-masses. It is to this circumstance, combined with that of the enormous pressure of water on the ocean-beds, that we must probably ascribe the general absence of volcanoes in the deep seas and their distribution near coast-lines.

We have thus briefly reviewed the chief hypotheses which have been suggested in order to account for the two great factors in all volcanic phenomena--namely, the presence of highly heated rock-masses within the earth's crust, and the existence of various vapours and gases in a state of most intimate mechanical, but not chemical, union with these incandescent materials. It must be admitted that we do not at present appear to have the means for framing a complete and consistent theory of volcanic action, but we may hopefully look forward to the time when further observation and experiment shall have removed many of the existing difficulties which beset the question, and when by the light of such future researches untenable hypotheses shall be eliminated and the just ones improved and established.

But if we are constrained to admit that a study of the observed phenomena and established laws of volcanic action have not as yet enabled us to frame any complete and satisfactory theory on the subject, we cannot lose sight of the fact that all modern speculation upon this question appears to be tending in one definite direction. It is every day becoming more and more clear that our earth is bound by ties of the closest resemblance to the other members of that family of worlds to which it belongs, and that the materials entering into their constitution, and the forces operating in all are the same.

We have had occasion in a previous chapter to point out that there are the strongest grounds for believing the interior of our globe to consist of similar materials to those found in the small planetary bodies known as meteorites. That the comets are merely aggregations of such meteorites, and that the planets differ from them only in their greater dimensions, may be regarded as among the demonstrated conclusions of the astronomer. The materials found most abundantly in meteorites and in the interior of our globe are precisely the same as those which are proved to exist in an incandescent state in our sun. Hence we are led to conclude that the whole of the bodies of the solar system are composed of the same chemical elements.

That the forces operating in each of these distant bodies present striking points of analogy is equally clear. The sun is of far greater dimensions than our earth, and is still in great part, if not entirely, in a gaseous condition. The great movements in the outer envelopes of the sun exhibited in the 'sun-spots' and 'solar prominences,' recall to the mind the phenomena of volcanic activity upon our globe. But the vast energy still existing in the intensely heated mass of the sun, and the wonderful mobility of its gaseous materials, give rise to appearances beside which all terrestrial outbursts seem to sink into utter insignificance. Vast cavities of such dimensions that many globes of the size of our earth might be swallowed up in them are formed in the solar envelopes in the course of a few days or hours. Within these cavities or sun-spots incandescent vapours are observed, rushing upwards and downwards with almost inconceivable velocity.

The drawings made by Secchi, and reproduced in figs. 89 and 90, will give some idea of the appearances presented by these great holes in the solar envelopes.

In fig. 89 a group of sun-spots is represented and, in their circular outlines and tendency to a linear arrangement, they can scarcely fail to remind anyone familiar with volcanic phenomena of terrestrial craters, though their dimensions are so much greater.

In fig. 90 the sun-spot represented shows the presence of large floating masses of incandescent materials rushing upwards and downwards within the yawning gulf.

From fig. 91, taken from a drawing by Mr. Norman Lockyer, we may understand the movements of these great protuberances of incandescent gas which are seen on the sides of the sun-spots.

The so-called solar prominences present even more striking resemblances to the volcanic outbursts of our globe.

Two drawings made by Mr. Norman Lockyer will serve to give some idea of the vast dimensions of these solar prominences, and of the rapid changes which take place in their form.

The masses of incandescent gas were estimated as being no less than 27,000 feet in height, yet in ten minutes they had totally changed their form and appearance, as shown in fig. 93.

Even still more striking are the changes recorded by Professor Young, of New-Haven, in a solar prominence, which he observed on September 7, 1871.

That astronomer described a mass of incandescent gas rising from the surface of the sun to the height of 54,000 miles. In less than twenty-five minutes he saw the whole mass torn to shreds and blown upwards, some of the fragments being in ten minutes hurled to the height of 200,000 miles above the sun's surface. The masses of incandescent gas thus hurled upwards were of enormous dimensions, the smallest being estimated as having a greater area than the whole of the British Islands, and the force with which they were urged upwards was so great that they acquired a velocity of 166 miles per second. The accompanying woodcut shows the successive appearances presented by this grand eruptive outburst on the surface of the sun.

The moon, which is of far smaller size than our earth, exhibits on its surface sufficiently striking evidences of the action of volcanic forces. Indeed the dimensions of the craters and fissures which cover the whole visible lunar surface are such that we cannot but infer volcanic activity to have been far more violent on the moon than it is at the present day upon the earth. This greater violence of the volcanic forces on the moon is perhaps accounted for by the fact that the force of gravity on the surface of the moon is only one-sixth of that at the surface of the earth; and thus the eruptive energy will have a much less smaller resistance to overcome in bursting asunder the solid crust and accumulated heaps of ejected materials on its surface. But the volcanic action on the moon appears now to have wholly ceased, and the absence of both water and atmosphere in our satellite suggests that this extinction of volcanic energy may have been caused by the complete absorption of its gaseous envelope. The appearance presented by a portion of the moon's surface is shown in fig. 95.

The sun and the moon appear to exhibit two widely separated extremes in the condition assumed during the cooling down from a state of incandescence of great globes of vaporised materials. The several planets, our own among the number, probably exhibit various intermediate stages of consolidation.

Our earth is, as we have seen, closely allied to the other bodies of the solar system in its movements, its relations, and its composition; and a true theory of terrestrial vulcanicity, when it is discovered, may be expected not only to afford an explanation of the phenomena displayed on our own globe, but to account for those displays of internal energy which have been manifested in other members of the same great family of worlds.

INDEX.

ABICH, cited, 122 -- researches of, 4 Absorption of gases by liquids and solids, 354, 355 Acid lavas, 48 Æolian Islands. See Lipari Islands Æolus, origin of myth, 35 Africa, volcanoes of, 227 -- South, diamonds of, 147 Agates, formation of, 150 Allport, Mr., cited, 259 Alps, formation of, 292 Altered lavas, names given to, 261 America, volcanoes of, 227 Amygdaloids, formation of, 140, 141 Andesites, 50, 59 Andesite-volcanoes, 126 Andrews, Professor, cited, 321 Anne Boleyn and Etna, 3 Armstrong, Sir W., hydro-electric machine, 29 Arthur's Seat, 275 Artificial stone, 55 Asia, volcanoes of, 227 Asiderites, 316 Asmanite, 314 Astroni, crater-ring of, 170 Atlantic, volcanoes in, 223 Auvergne, breached cones of, 123, fig. 40 -- denuded cones in, 124, fig. 42 -- incrusting springs of, 184 -- puys of, 152, 212 -- volcanic cones in, 79

BALL-AND-SOCKET structure in basaltic columns, 107 Barrancos, formation of, 209 Basalt, controversy concerning origin of, 249 Basalts, 49, 50, 59 Basaltic columns of Bohemia, 107 -- -- of Central Germany, 107 -- -- of Monte Albano, 107 -- -- from the Giant's Causeway, 107, fig. 29 Basic lavas, 48 Bath, hot spring of, 219 Ben Nevis, 274 Bohemia, volcanoes of, 126 -- lavas of, 103 Boiling. See Ebullition Bonney, Professor, cited, 69, 109, 259 Boracic acid at volcanic vents, 216 Bourbon, volcano of, 176, figs. 74, 75 Bracciano, crater-lake of, 178, fig. 77 Breached cones, 123, fig. 40 Babbles of steam, escape from lava, 21 Bubbles, spontaneous movement of, in liquid cavities, 62, fig. 8 -- -- cause of, 65 Buch, Von, researches of, 4 Buda-Pesth, deep well of, 335, 341 Büdos Hegy, Transylvania, 215 Bunsen, cited, 201 Burning, does not take place at volcanoes, 2

CADER IDRIS, 274 'Calderas,' formation of, 180 Caldera of Palma, 209 Cambro-Silurian volcanoes of British Islands, 274 Campi-Phlegræi, map of, fig. 11 -- -- volcanoes of, 79 -- -- tuff-cones of, 118 -- -- fissures in, 197 Carbonic acid in cavities of crystals, 63 Carboniferous volcanoes of British Islands, 275 Carlsbad, Strudel of, 218 -- Strudelstein of, 184 Caspian Sea, mud-volcanoes of, 182 Catacecaumene, volcano cones in, 79 Cause of proximity of volcanoes to sea, 239 Central Asia, volcanoes of, 236 -- America, mud-volcanoes, 182 -- Pacific, volcanoes of, 236 'Challenger,' H.M.S., voyage of, 73 -- -- soundings of, 359 Chance, Messrs., of Birmingham, 55 Charnwood Forest, ancient volcanic rocks of, 259 Chemical deposits at Vulcano, 44 -- -- on surfaces of lavas, 110 -- elements present in lavas, 46 -- theory of volcanoes, 344, 346 Chiaja di Luna, 108 Chimborazo, size of, 44 -- 151 Chodi-Berg, Hungary, 161 Citlaltepetl, view of, 169, fig. 69 Coast-lines, proximity of volcanoes to, 228 Cole, Mr. Grenville, 110 Colours of lavas, 49 Columns in lava, 105 -- -- dimensions of, 105 -- radiating in intrusive masses, 136 Columnar structure in lavas, 104 -- -- origin of, 105 Columnar lava-stream on the Ardèche, 107, fig. 28 Combustion, does not take place at volcanoes, 2 Composite cones, 128, 161 Comstock mines, temperature of, 342 Concentric jointing in lava, 108, fig. 30 Cones composed of viscid lava, 129, fig. 43 -- miniature on lava-streams, 100, 101, figs. 25, 26 -- natural sections of, 129 -- shifting of axis in, 167 Coolin Hills, Skye, 144 Cotopaxi, volcanic dust of, 69 -- view of, 168, fig. 68 Craters, formation of, 82 -- origin of, 167 -- position of, 167 -- fissuring of sides, 180 Crater of Stromboli, aperture at bottom of, 15 Crater-lakes, formation of, 171 -- of Agnano, 171 -- of Albano, 171 -- of Avernus, 171 -- of Bagno, 171, fig. 71 -- of Bolsena, 171 -- of Bracciano, 171 -- of Frascati, 173, 175 -- of Gustavila, 171, fig. 72 -- of Laach, 171 -- of Nemi, 171 Crater-rings, formation of, 170 Crater-ring of Somma, 177, fig. 76 Crater-ring of Pianura, 174 -- -- of Piano di Quarto, 174 -- -- of Vallariccia, 174 Creuzot, shafts at, 340 'Critical point' of liquids, 63 Crust of globe, definition of, 308 Crystals in lavas, 51 -- -- formed of crystallites, 54-57 -- -- formed in subterranean reservoirs, 60 -- -- interruption in growth of, 60 -- pressure under which formed, 65 -- deposited on surface of lava, 110 -- porphyritic, origin of, 256 Crystalline minerals formed beneath volcanoes, 146, 147 -- -- ejected from volcanoes, 147 Crystallised minerals of volcanoes, 46 Crystallites, aggregates of, 54, Frontispiece Crystallites in lavas, 53, Frontispiece Crypto-crystalline base, 57 'Cupolas,' 135 Corral of Madeira, 209

DACITES, 198 Dana, Professor, J. D., cited, 100, 159, 291, 301, 327, 338, 339 Darwin, Mr., cited, 245, 246, 271, 289 Daubeny, cited, 182 Daubrée, M., cited, 147, 315, 320, 358 Daubréelite, 314 Davy, Sir Humphry, chemical theory of volcanoes, 344, 345 Deccan of India, 103 Density of the earth, 306 Denuded cones and craters, 158, fig. 59 Denudation, effects of, on volcanoes, 114 Deposits about volcanic fissures, 42 Detonations at Vesuvius, 26 Devonian volcanoes of British Islands, 274 Diorite, 59 Dolomieu, cited, 4, 39 Durocher, cited, 201 Dykes, formation of, 116, 117, 209, 210 -- structure of rock in, 211 -- pseudo-, 119 Dynamical theory of volcanoes, 347, 348

EARTH'S interior, nature of, 309 -- -- physical condition of, 325 -- -- hypothesis concerning, 328-330 -- relation to other planets, 310, 311 Earthquakes, depth of origin of, 343, 344 -- connection with volcanoes, 343 -- accompanying Vesuvian eruption of 1872, 27 Ebullition, compared to volcanic eruptions, 19, 20 Eifel, volcanic cones of, 45 Ejected blocks, 45 -- materials, height to which thrown, 72 -- -- stratification of, 117-119 Elements, pyroxenic and trachytic, theory of, 201 Elevation-craters, theory of, 135, 200 Erroneous opinions, sources of, in regard to volcanoes, 2 Eruptions, feeble and violent compared, 31 -- prediction of, not possible, 32 -- intervals between, 33 -- of varying intensity, 33 -- and barometric pressure, 36 -- effects of repetition of from same fissure, 80 Eruptive action in sun and moon, 360-369 Etna, ideas of ancients concerning, 3 -- and Anne Boleyn, 3 -- observatory on, 37 -- size of, 44 --, 151 -- eruptions at summit and on flanks, 207 Etna, dyke and lava-stream in, 133, fig. 54 Etna, views of, 162, 163, figs. 62, 63 Euganean Hills, 139 -- -- volcanoes of, 201 Europe, volcanoes of, 227 Extra-terrestrial rocks, 316 Extra-terrestrial rocks, relation to ultra-basic rocks, 322, fig. 88

FELSTONES, 263 Ferric-chloride, mistaken for sulphur, 41 Fissure on flanks of Etna, 194, fig. 84 Fissure-eruptions, 188 Fissures, volcanic cones on, 194 -- systems of, 198 Fingal's Cave, 106 Flames, phenomena mistaken for, 2 -- at volcanoes, feebly luminous, 17 -- false appearance of, in volcanoes, 17 Flames at volcanic vents, 41 Flashing lighthouse, compared to Stromboli, 10 Floods, accompanying volcanic outbursts, 30 Forbes, Mr. David, cited, 337, 339 Fossils, from beneath Vesuvius, 45 -- supposed in basalt, 250 Fouqué, M., cited, 110, 213 Fumaroles, gases emitted from, 213 Fusiyama, form of, 90, 166 Fusiyama, 178, fig. 77

GABBRO, 59 Gardiner's river, travertine terraces of, 185 Gases emitted from volcanoes, 40 -- -- volcanic vents, 212-216 Geanticlinals, formation of, 297 Gems, formation of, 147 -- mode of occurrence, 148 Geological continuity, doctrine of, 247 Geosynclinals, formation of, 294 Geysers, formation of, 217 -- intermittent action of, 218 -- of Colorado, 184, 217 -- of Iceland, 184, 217 Giant's Causeway, 108 Gilbert, Mr. G. K., cited, 208 Girgenti, mud-volcanoes of, 182 Glass, formed by fusion of lavas, 52 Glasses, composed of certain silicates, 58 Glassy base, 57 Goethe, cited, 112 Graham Isle, 178, 179, fig. 78 Graham, cited, 345 Grand Sarcoui, Auvergne, 161 Granite, 59 Granite of Secondary and Tertiary ages, 254 Granitic rocks, position beneath volcanoes, 145 Great earth movements, nature of, 286 Great volcanic bands of the globe, 232-234 Grenelle, boring of, 341 Greystones, 49 Groundmass of lavas, 52 Grotto del Cane, 215 Guevo Upas, Java, 215 Guiscardi, Professor, referred to, 45 Gustavila, crater-lake of, 172, fig. 72

HAMILTON, Sir W., researches of, 4, 75, 84 -- -- observations on Vesuvius, 80 Hannay, Mr., referred to, 147 Hartley, Mr. Noel, referred to, 65 Hawaii, volcanoes of, 100, 125 -- -- lava-masses of, 159 -- -- volcanic eruptions at different levels, 327 Hebrides, volcanoes of, 271 Henry, Dr., cited, 355 Henry Mountains, Southern Utah, 208 Hephæstus, forge of, 3 Hochstetter, cited, 135, 356 Holosiderites, 315 Hopkins, Mr., cited, 349 Hot springs, numbers of, 219 Humboldt, researches of, 4 Hungary, lavas of, 96, 103 -- volcanoes of, 126, 201 -- deep wells of, 341 Hverfjall, Iceland, 178, fig. 77 Hydro-electric machine of Sir W. Armstrong, 29 Hypothesis, value of, 331-333

ICE under lava of Vesuvius in 1872, and of Etna, 110 Iceland, volcanic dust of, carried to Norway, 72 Indian Ocean, volcanoes in, 229 Insel Ferdinandez, 178, 179, fig. 78 Intermediate lavas, 48 Intervals between Eruptions, 33 Ireland, north-east of, 103 Iron in Ovifak-basalts, 319, fig. 87 Iron, seething of, 356 -- of Ovifak, terrestrial origin of, 320 Ischia, eruption in 1301, 164 -- crater-lake of Bagno in, 172, fig. 71 -- plan of, 163, fig. 64 -- parasitic cones in, 164, fig. 65 Island of Bourbon, 93 Isle Julie, 178, 179, fig. 78 Isogeotherms, 359

JANSSEN, referred to, 42 Joint-structures in lava, 104-110

KAMMERBÜHL, 112-114, fig. 33 -- section of, 114, fig. 34 -- section in side of, 118, fig. 36 Kant, nebular hypothesis of, 352 Kilauea, volcano of, 71, 138 -- crater of, 181 King, Mr. Clarence, cited, 301

LAACHER SEE, minerals ejected at, 149 Lac Paven, Auvergne, 171, fig. 70 'Laccolites,' formation of, 208 Lago di Bolsena, 173, 175 Lago di Bracciano, dimensions of, 172, 173 Lake Avernus, 215 Lapilli, 70 Laplace, nebular hypothesis of, 325, 352 Lavas, action of acid gases on, 41 -- resemblance to slags, 46 -- chemical elements in, 46 -- oxygen in, 47 -- silicon in, 47 -- proportion of silica and other oxides in, 47 -- silicates in, 47 -- acid, intermediate, basic, 48 -- specific gravities of, 49 -- colours of, 49 -- microscopic study of, 50 -- fusibility of, 51 -- minerals in, 51 -- artificially fused, 51 -- crystals in, 51, 93 -- ground mass of, 52 -- crystalline forms of, 59 -- of Bohemia, 103 -- of Hungary, 96, 103 -- of Kilauea, 95 -- of Lipari, 96 -- of Niedermendig, 103 -- of Vesuvius, 104 -- of Volvic, 95 -- of Volcano, 95 -- presence of water In, 102 -- chemical deposits on, 110 -- different fluidity of, 204 -- augite and hornblende in, 267 Lava, cascade of, 93, fig. 18 Lava-cones, composed of liquid lava, 125 -- -- of viscid lava, 126, 127 -- characters of, of liquid lava, 159 -- -- of viscid lava, 160 Lava-cones, outlines of, 160, fig. 60 Lava, in deep-seated reservoirs, 138 -- consolidation of, at great depths, 139 Lava-fountains, 94 Lava-sheets, intrusive, 136, 137, fig. 56 'Lava' ornaments of Naples, 45 'Lava,' slow-cooling of, 110 -- a bad conductor of heat, 110 -- ice under, 110 Lava-streams, nature of movements, 92 -- difference in liquidity of, 92 -- miniature cones on, 100, 101 -- vast dimensions of, 102 -- structure of, 103 -- position of columns in, 106 -- sinking of surface of, 111 'Lave di fango,' 30 'Lave di fuoco,' 30 Lawrencite, 314 Laws of volcanic action, 38 Le Conte, cited, 347 Leucite, absence from ancient lavas, 268 Lightning, accompanying volcanic outbursts, 28 Linear arrangement of volcanic vents, 191 -- -- of volcanoes, 231 Lipari Islands, 3, 39 -- -- fissures in, 197 -- -- pumice-cones in, 154 -- -- order of appearance of lavas in, 200 -- -- breached pumice-cones in, 124, fig. 41 -- -- map of, 192, fig. 81 -- -- lavas of, 96, figs. 20, 21 Liquids in cavities of crystals, 63 Liquid cavities in lavas, 60, fig. 7 -- -- spontaneous movement of bubbles in, 62, fig. 8 -- -- spontaneous movement of bubbles in, cause of, 65 Lockyer, Mr. Norman, cited, 322, 363, 364 Lunar craters, 368, fig. 95 Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 135, 167, 197

MACCULLOCH, cited, 207, 208 Madeira, cliff-section in, 128, fig. 47 Magmas, theory of, 201 -- objections to, 202, 203 Mallet, Mr., cited, 269, 343, 346 Mamelons of Bourbon, 126, 127, figs. 45, 46 Maskelyne, Professor, cited, 314 Massa di Somma, destruction of, 26 Mauna Loa, 138 Metamorphism around volcanic vents, 145 Meteorites, nature of, 312 -- composition of, 313 -- minerals of, 314 -- classification of, 315 Melaphyres, 262 Miascite, 59 Michel Lévy, M., 110 Micro-crystalline base, 58 Microliths. See Crystallites Microscopic study of lavas, 50 Minerals in lavas, 51 -- of Vesuvius, 46 Mineral-veins, formation of, 149 -- connection with volcanoes, 220 -- nature of materials in, 321 Misenum, Cape of, section of tuff-cone of, 121, fig. 38 Modena, mud-volcanoes of, 182 Mont Dore, section at, 130, fig. 48 Monte Cerboli, Tuscany, 216 Monte Massi, Tuscany, well at, 341 Monte Nuovo, history of formation of, 76 -- -- description of, 77, 78, fig. 10 -- -- 152 -- -- crater of, 168 -- -- production of fissure at, 190 Monte Rotondo, Tuscany, 216 Moon, effect of internal forces on, 305 Mountains, all volcanoes not, 2 Mountain-chains, formation of, 291 -- -- all of recent date, 292 Mud-streams at volcanoes, 30 Mud-volcanoes, formation of, 181, 182 Mull, dissected volcano of, 142-4, figs. 57, 58 Muscovite, absence of, from modern lavas, 268

NEBULAR hypothesis of Laplace, 325, 352 -- -- of Kant, 352 New Zealand, geysers of, 217 -- -- volcanoes of, 135 -- -- volcanic cones in, 79 Niedermendig, lava of, 103 Nordenskiöld, Professor, cited, 318

OBSERVATORY on Vesuvius, 24, 37 -- on Etna, 37 Obsidian, 59 Oceans, depth of, in volcanic areas, 242 Oceanic islands, volcanoes in, 228 Oliver, Capt. S. P., 92 Oldhamite, 314 Outlines of Vesuvius, 87, fig. 17 Ovifak, iron-masses of, 319 Oxidation of materials of globe, 324 Oxygen, proportion in lavas, 47

PACIFIC, volcanoes in, 229 Palmieri, Professor, cited, 25, 37 Papandayang, eruption of, 169 Papin's digester, nature of action in, 22 Parasitic cones, formation of, 161, 162, fig. 61 Pele's Hair, 71 Perlitic structure, 109 Phillips, Mr. J. A., cited, 220 Phonolites, 50, 59 Phonolite-volcanoes, 126 Photograph of Vesuvius eruption, 24, fig. 5 'Pine-tree, appendage of Vesuvius, 29 Pitchstones, porphyritic, 60 Plateaux formed of lava-sheets, 270 Pliny, Elder, death of, 7 Plombières, hot springs of, 147 Plutonic rocks, 61 Pompeii, nature of materials covering, 117 Ponza Islands, 39 Ponza, sections in, 131, 132, figs. 51, 52 Porphyrites, 263 Porphyritic pitchstones, 60 Potentially liquid rock, 250 Pre-Cambrian volcanoes of British Islands, 274 Presence of water in lavas, 353 Pressure under which crystals were formed, 65 Predazzo, ancient volcano of, 165, fig. 67 Propylites, 199 Pseudo-dykes, 119 Pumice, how formed, 68 -- cause of white colour of, 71 -- floating on ocean, 73 -- on ocean-beds, 73 Pumice-cones, 154 Puy de Pariou, Auvergne, 193, 194, figs. 82, 83 Puzzolana, 89

RAIN, accompanying volcanic outbursts, 30 Rate of movement of lava-streams, 97 Rath, Professor Vom, 72 Red clay of ocean-beds, 74 Red Mountains, Skye, 144 Reservoirs beneath volcanoes, 145 Reyer, Dr. Ed., experiments of, 125, 160 Reykjanes, eruption of, in 1783, 102 Rhyolites, 50, 59 Richthofen, Von, cited, 196, 199, 200, 205 Rocca-Monfina, 178, fig. 77 -- --, 204 Rock-masses, movements of, 288 Rocky Mountains, 103 -- -- volcanoes of, 201 Rotomahana, sinter-terraces of, 185 Ropy-lavas, 98, fig. 24

SALINA, section in, 132, fig. 53 Sandwich Islands, lavas of, 125 San Sebastiano, destruction of, 26 San Stephano, section in, 131, fig. 50 Santorin, 42 Sarcoui, Grand Puy of, 126, fig. 44 Sciarra del fuoco, 13 Scoria, how formed, 68, 70 Scoria-cones, altered by acid gas, 155 -- breached, 156 -- characters of, 153 -- preservation of, 155 -- red colour of, 154 Scoria-cone in Vesuvius, 122, fig. 39 Scoria-cone near Auckland, N. Z., 1656, fig. 66 Schmidt, referred to, 153 Schreibersite, 314 Scrope, Mr. Poulett, cited, 5, 69, 106, 135, 198, 205, 212, 238, 289 Sea of Azof, mud-volcanoes of, 182 Secchi, Father, cited, 362 Shiant Isles, 105 Silica, presence in lavas, 47 Silicates in lavas, 47 Silicon, proportion in lavas, 47 Siliceous sinter, deposits of, 220 Silver, spitting of, 355 Silvestri, Professor, cited, 230 Similarity of lavas of different ages, 260 Sinter-cones, forms of, 183, fig. 79 Skye, dissected volcano of, 144 Slags, compared with lavas, 46 Smith, Lawrence, cited, 320 Smoke, appearance of, due to steam, 2 Snowdon, 274 Solar prominences, 364-366, figs. 92, 93, 94 Solfatara of Naples, 214 Solfatara-stage of volcanoes, 215 Somma, 133 -- crater-ring of, 83 Sorby, Mr. H. C., referred to, 59, 252 Spallanzani, early researches of, 4 -- observations on Stromboli, 8 -- cited, 39, 367 Specific gravities of lavas, 49 -- -- of glassy and crystalline rocks, 59 Spectroscope in vulcanology, 41 Spectrum-analysis, results of, 311 Specular-iron, deposited on lava-streams, 110 Sperenberg, boring of, 341 Sphærulites, 54, Frontispiece Sporadosiderites, 316 Stability of crust of globe, 326 Staffa, Isle of, 106 Steenstrup, cited, 319 Steam-engine compared to volcano, 8 Steam, emitted by lava of Vesuvius, 27 Sternberg, referred to, 113 St. Kilda, 181 Stokes, Professor, 65 St. Paul, Island of, 180 Stromboli, 42, 158 -- apertures at bottom of crater, 15 -- appearances in crater of, 16 -- -- at night, 10 -- compared with Vesuvius, 23 -- crater of, 13 -- dependence of eruptions on atmospheric conditions, 34 -- eruption of, 14, fig. 4 -- general features of, 11 -- map of, 11, fig. 2 -- observations by Spallanzani, 8 -- resemblance to flashing light, 10 -- section of, 13, fig. 8 -- soundings around, 12 -- vapour-cloud above, 9 -- violent eruptions of, 23 Strombolian stage, 23 Stufas, nature of, 217 Submarine volcanoes, 179 Subterranean forces, beneficial effects of, 303 Subsidence in centre of volcanoes, 165 Sulphur, absorption of water by molten, 356 -- deposited on lava-streams, 110 -- how formed at volcanoes, 18 -- not the cause of volcanic outbursts, 18 Surfaces of lava-streams, 97-99, figs. 22, 23 Sun-spots, 361-363, figs. 89, 90, 91 Syenite, 59 Syssiderites, 316 Szabo, Professor, cited, 199

TACHYLYTE, 59 Tertiary volcanoes of British Islands, 276 Terraces, sinter- and travertine-formation of, 185, fig. 80 Temperature, increase in deeper parts of earth's crust, 335 -- rate of increase in different areas, 340 Teneriffe, 44, 151 Teneriffe, 178, fig. 77 -- peak of, 175, fig. 73 Tenon-and-mortise structure in basaltic columns, 107 Theodosius and Vulcano, 3 Thunder, accompanying volcanic outbursts, 28 Trachytes, 49, 50, 69 Trap-rocks, origin of, 241 Trass, 90 Travertine or Tibur-stone, 184 -- deposits of, 220 Triassic volcanoes of British Islands, 275 Tridymite deposited on lava-streams, 110 Troilite, 314 Troost, cited, 355 Tufa, or tuff, 90 Tuff-cones, character of, 157 -- denudation of, 157, 158 Typhon, fable of, 3

ULTRA-BASIC lavas, 50, 66 -- rocks, 317

VAL DEL BOVE, Etna, 133, 180, 209 -- -- dykes in, 134, fig. 55 Vapour-cloud over Vesuvius, 26, 29 -- -- Stromboli, 9 Ventotienne, Island of, section at, 130, fig. 49 Vesuvius, 37 -- changes in form of, 81 -- compared with Stromboli, 23 -- crater of in 1756, 84, fig. 14 -- -- of in 1767, 85, fig. 16 -- -- of in 1822, 82, fig. 13 -- -- of in 1843, 86, fig. 16 -- detonations at, 26 -- early history of, 83 -- eruption of year 79, 84 -- -- of 1822, 69 -- -- of April 1872, 24 -- -- of October 1822, 24 -- ejected blocks of, 45 -- first eruption of, 7 -- form of, 166 -- fossils of, 45 -- growth of cone of, 80 -- history of, 204 -- last eruption of, 7 -- lava-stream of 1855, 101 -- lava-streams of 1858, 1872, 97 -- lavas of, 104 -- minerals of, 46 -- -- ejected at, 149 -- observatory on, 24, 37 -- outlines of, 87 -- pine-tree appendage of, 29 -- scoria-cones in lava, 122 -- -- on lava of 1855, 153 -- steam emitted by lava of, 27 -- vapour-cloud over, 26, 29 Vesuvian stage, 23 -- eruption, photograph of, 24, fig. 5 Viscid lavas of Lipari Islands, 94-96 Vitreous lavas, devitrification of, 259 Volcanic action, laws of, 32 -- bombs, 70, 71 -- cycles, nature of, 221, 222 -- -- duration of, 223 -- cones, internal structure of, 115-122 -- -- experimental illustration of formation of, 120, fig. 37 -- -- limits to height of, 166 -- -- form of, 152 -- -- dimensions of, 152 -- -- irregular development of, 90 -- -- slopes of sides of, 91 -- -- composed of ejected rock-fragments, 156 -- -- curved slopes of, 156 -- débris on sea-bottom, 240 -- dust, fineness of, 69 -- districts, areas of upheaval, 245 -- ejections, alteration of, 258 -- eruptions, compared to ebullition, 19, 20 -- forces, compensate for denudation, 283 -- -- intensity at former periods, 278 -- -- necessity for action of, 285 -- -- shifting of from one area to another, 277 -- mountains, origin of conical forms, 89 -- -- mode of growth, 89 -- phenomena of the past similar to those at present, 273 -- products, order of appearance of, 198, 199 Volcanic rocks, 61 -- -- similarity of ancient and modern, 253 Volcano, origin of name, 3 -- craters of, 167 -- Island of. See Vulcano. -- compared to steam-engine, 8 Volcanoes, blocks, ejected from, 45 -- built up of ejected fragments, 74 -- destruction caused by, 281 -- dissected by denudation, 115, 139 -- erroneous ideas concerning, 1 -- ejection of different materials from, 205 -- known to ancients, 3 -- life-history of, 186 -- number of, 224, 225 -- of Africa, 227 -- of America, 236 -- of Asia, 236 -- of Bohemia, 126 -- of Central Asia, 236 -- of Central Pacific, 236 -- of Europe, 227 -- of Hungary, 126 -- position in relation to mountain chains, 243 -- popular ideas concerning, 1 -- reservoirs beneath, 145 Volvic lava of, 103 Vose, cited, 346 Vulcan, forge of, 3 Vulcano, island of, 3, 158 Vulcano and Theodosius, 3 Vulcano, 178, fig. 77 -- and Vulcanello, view of, 43, fig. 6 -- chemical deposits at, 44 -- eruption in 1786, 43 -- -- in 1873, 43 -- -- lava-stream in, 95, fig. 19 -- --, 103, fig. 27 -- plan of, 195, fig. 85 -- section of volcanic cone in, 116, fig. 35 -- section in, 129 -- shifting of centre of eruption in, 196 Vulcanello, craters of, 197, fig. 86 Vulcanology, origin of the science, 4 -- earliest treatise on, 5

Walferdin, M., cited, 340 Water in lavas, 353 -- penetration through rocks, 358 -- presence of in lavas, 102 -- and saline solutions in cavities of crystals, 63 Werner, cited, 201 Western Isles of Scotland, 103, 139, 142 -- -- volcanoes of, 212 Whymper, Mr., 69 Woodward, Mr., experiments of, 119 Wrekin, ancient volcanic rocks of, 259

YOUNG, Professor, cited, 365

ZEOLITES, formation of, 150

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Transcriber Note

Minor typos corrected. Listing of "The International Scientific Series" was split between the front and end of book but are here moved to the end. The list was also reformatted. The captions for the map key in Figure 58 were reformatted into a table. Figure 41 was relocated as it followed Figure 42 in the printed version.