Part 9

It is stated that auroras are more numerous about the equinoxes than they are at any other seasons; and also, when the earth is in perigee, than when it is in apogee. An examination which I have made of a catalogue by Professor Loomis, comprising 4,137 auroras observed in the temperate zone of our hemisphere from 1776 to 1873, sustains this statement. During this period, one hundred more auroras were recorded during each of the months comprising the equinoxes, than during any other months of the year; while eighty more auroras were observed when the earth was in perigee, than when it was in apogee. But to establish the truth of this assertion on a solid basis, more observations in both hemispheres will be required.

The aurora is not simply a terrestrial phenomenon, but is associated in some mysterious way with the conditions of the Sun's surface. It is a well-known fact that terrestrial magnetism is influenced directly by the Sun, which creates the diurnal oscillations of the magnetic needle. Between sunrise and two o'clock, the north pole of the needle moves towards the west in our northern hemisphere, and in the afternoon and evening it moves the other way. These daily oscillations of the needle are not uniform in extent; they have a period of regular increase and decrease. At a given place the daily oscillations of the magnetic needle increase and decrease with regularity during a period which is equal to 10⅓ years. As this period closely coincides with the Sun-spot period, the connection between the variation of the needle and these solar disturbances has been recognized.

Auroral phenomena generally accompany the extraordinary perturbations in the oscillations of the magnetic needle, which are commonly called "magnetic storms," and the greater the auroral displays, the greater are the magnetic perturbations. Not only is the needle subject to unusual displacements during an aurora, but its movements seem to be simultaneous with the pulsations and waving motions of the delicate auroral streamers in the sky. When the aurora sends forth a coruscation, or a streamer in the sky, the magnetic needle responds to it by a vibration. The inference that the auroral phenomena are connected with terrestrial magnetism is further supported by the fact that the centre of the corona is always situated exactly in the direction of that point in the heavens to which the dipping needle is directed.

It has been found that the aurora is a periodical phenomenon, and that its period corresponds very closely with those of the magnetic needle and Sun-spots. The years which have the most Sun-spots and magnetic disturbances have also the most auroras. There is an almost perfect similarity between the courses of the three sets of phenomena, from which it is concluded that the aurora is connected in some mysterious way with the action of the Sun, as well as with the magnetic condition of the earth.

A very curious observation, which has been supposed to have some connection with this subject, was made on Sept. 1st, 1859, by Mr. Carrington and Mr. Hodgson, in England. While these observers, who were situated many miles from one another, were both engaged at the same time in observing the same Sun-spot, they suddenly saw two luminous spots of dazzling brilliancy bursting into sight from the edge of the Sun-spot. These objects moved eastward for about five minutes, after which they disappeared, having then traveled nearly 34,000 miles. Simultaneously with these appearances, a magnetic disturbance was registered at Kew by the self-registering magnetic instruments. The very night that followed these observations, great magnetic perturbations, accompanied by brilliant auroral displays, were observed in Europe. A connection between the terrestrial magnetism and the auroral phenomena is further proved by the fact that, before the appearance of an aurora, the magnetic intensity of our globe considerably increases, but diminishes as soon as the first flashes show themselves.

The auroral phenomena are also connected in some way with electricity, and generate serious disturbances in the electric currents traversing our telegraphic lines, which are thus often rendered useless for the transmission of messages during great auroral displays. It sometimes happens, however, during such displays, that the telegraphic lines can be operated for a long distance, without the assistance of a battery; the aurora, or at least its cause, furnishing the necessary electric current for the working of the line. During auroras, the telephonic lines are also greatly affected, and all kinds of noises and crepitations are heard in the instruments.

Two observations of mine, which may have a bearing on the subject, present some interest, as they seem to indicate the action of the aurora on some of the clouds of our atmosphere. On January 6th, 1872, after I had been observing a brilliant aurora for over one hour, an isolated black cumulus cloud appeared at a little distance from the western extremity of the dark auroral segment. This cloud, probably driven by the wind, rapidly advanced eastward, and was soon followed by a succession of similar clouds, all starting from the same point. All these black clouds apparently followed the same path, which was not a straight line, but parallel to and concentric with the border of the dark auroral segment. When the first cloud arrived in the vicinity of the magnetic meridian passing through the middle of the auroral arc, it very rapidly dissolved, and on reaching this meridian became invisible. The same phenomenon was observed with the succession of black clouds following, each rapidly dissolving as it approached the magnetic meridian. This phenomenon of black clouds vanishing like phantoms in crossing the magnetic meridian, was observed for nearly an hour. On June 17th, 1879, I observed a similar phenomenon during a fine auroral display. About midway between the horizon and the polar star, but a little to the west of the magnetic meridian, there was a large black cumulo-stratus cloud which very slowly advanced eastward. As it progressed in that direction, its eastern extremity was dissolved in traversing the magnetic meridian; while, at the same time, several short and quite bright auroral rays issued from its western extremity, which in its turn dissolved rapidly, as if burned or melted away in the production of the auroral flame.

It seems to be a well observed fact, that during auroras, a strong sulphurous odor prevails in high northern latitudes. According to Dr. Hjaltalin, during these phenomena, "the ozone of the atmosphere increases considerably, and men and animals exposed out of doors emit a sulphurous odor when entering a heated room." The Esquimaux and other inhabitants of the northern regions assert that great auroras are sometimes accompanied by crepitations and crackling noises of various sorts. Although these assertions have been denied by several travelers who have visited the regions of these phenomena, they are confirmed by many competent observers. Dr. Hjaltalin, who has heard these noises about six times in a hundred observations, says that they are especially audible when the weather is clear and calm; but that when the atmosphere is agitated they are not heard. He compares them to the peculiar sound produced by a silk cloth when torn asunder, or to the crepitations of the electric machine when its motion is accelerated. "When the auroral light is much agitated and the streamers show great movements, it is then that these noises are heard at different places in the atmosphere."

The spectrum of the auroral light, although it varies with almost every aurora, always shows a bright green line on a faint continuous spectrum. In addition to this green line I have frequently observed four broad diffused bands of greater refrangibility in the spectra of some auroras. In two cases, when the auroras appeared red towards the west, the spectrum showed a bright red line, in addition to the green line and the broad bands described. These facts evidently show that the light of the aurora is due to the presence of luminous vapors in our atmosphere; and it may reasonably be supposed that these vapors are rendered luminous by the passage of electric discharges through them.

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT

PLATE V

In our northern latitudes may be seen, on every clear winter and spring evening, a column of faint, whitish, nebulous light, rising obliquely above the western horizon. A similar phenomenon may also be observed in the east, before day-break, on any clear summer or autumn night. To this pale, glimmering luminosity the name of "Zodiacal Light" has been given, from the fact that it lies in the zodiac along the ecliptic.

In common with all the celestial bodies, the zodiacal light participates in the diurnal motion of the sky, and rises and sets with the constellations in which it appears. Aside from this apparent motion, it is endowed with a motion of its own, accomplished from west to east, in a period of a year. In its motion among the stars, the zodiacal light always keeps pace with the Sun, and appears as if forming two faint luminous wings, resting on opposite sides of this body. In reality it extends on each side of the Sun, its axis lying very nearly in the plane of the ecliptic.

In our latitudes the phenomena can be observed most advantageously towards the equinoxes, in March and September, when twilight is of short duration. As we proceed southward it becomes more prominent, and gradually increases in size and brightness. It is within the tropical regions that the zodiacal light acquires all its splendor: there it is visible all the year round, and always appears very nearly perpendicular to the horizon, while at the same time its proportions and brilliancy are greatly increased.

Observed February 20, 1876]

The zodiacal light appears under the form of a spear-head, or of a narrow cone of light whose base apparently rests on the horizon, while its summit rises among the zodiacal constellations. In general appearance it somewhat resembles the tail of a large comet whose head is below the horizon. The most favorable time to observe this phenomenon in the evening, is immediately after the last trace of twilight has disappeared; and in the morning, one or two hours before twilight appears. When observed with attention, it is seen that the light of the zodiacal cone is not uniform, but gradually increases in brightness inwardly, especially towards its base, where it sometimes surpasses in brilliancy the brightest parts of the Milky-Way. In general, its outlines are vague and very difficult to make out, so gradually do they blend with the sky. On some favorable occasions, the luminous cone appears to be composed of several distinct concentric conical layers, having different degrees of brightness, the inner cone being the most brilliant of all. There is a remarkable distinction between the evening and morning zodiacal light. In our climate, the morning light is pale, and never so bright nor so extended as the evening light.

In general, the zodiacal light is whitish and colorless, but in some cases it acquires a warm yellowish or reddish tint. These changes of color may be accidental and due to atmospheric conditions, and not to actual change in the color of the object. Although the zodiacal light is quite bright, and produces the impression of having considerable depth, yet its transparency is great, since all the stars, except the faint ones, can be seen through its substance.

The zodiacal light is subject to considerable variations in brightness, and also varies in extent, the apex of its cone varying in distance from the Sun's place, from 40 to 90 degrees. These variations cannot be attributed to atmospheric causes alone, some of them being due to real changes in the zodiacal light itself, whose light and dimensions increase or decrease under the action of causes at present unknown. From the discussion of a series of observations on the zodiacal light made at Paris and Geneva, it appears certain that its light varies from year to year, and sometimes even from day to day, independently of atmospheric causes. Some of my own observations agree with these results, and one of them, at least, seems to indicate changes even more rapid. On December 18th, 1875, I observed the zodiacal light in a clear sky free from any vapors, at six o'clock in the evening. At that time, the point of its cone was a little to the north of the ecliptic, at a distance of about 90 degrees from the Sun's place. Ten minutes later, its summit had sunk down 35 degrees, the cone then being reduced to nearly one-half of its original dimensions. Ten minutes later, it had risen 25 degrees, and was then 80 degrees from the Sun's place, where it remained all the evening. On March 22d, 1878, the sky was very clear and the zodiacal light was bright when I observed it, at eight o'clock. At that moment the apex of the cone of light was a little to the south of the Pleiades, but this cone presented an unusual appearance never noticed by me before, its northern border appearing much brighter and sharper than usual, while at the same time its axis of greatest brightness appeared to be much nearer to this northern border than it was to the southern. After a few minutes of observation it became evident that the northern border was extending itself, as stars which were at some distance from it became gradually involved in its light. At the same time that this border spread northward, it seemed to diffuse itself, and after a time the cone presented its usual appearance, having its southern border brighter and better defined than the other. It would have been impossible to attribute this sudden change to an atmospheric cause, since only one of the borders of the cone participated in it, and since some very faint stars near this northern border were not affected in the least while the phenomenon occurred. Besides these observations, Cassini, Mairan, Humboldt, and many other competent observers have seen pulsations, coruscations and bickerings in the light of the cone, which they thought could not be attributed to atmospheric causes. It has also been observed that at certain periods the zodiacal light has shone with unusual intensity for months together.

When this phenomenon is observed from the tropical regions, it is found that its axis of symmetry always corresponds with its axis of greatest brightness, and that both lie in the plane of the ecliptic, which divides its cone into two equal parts. But when the zodiacal light is observed in our latitude, the axis of symmetry does not correspond with the axis of greatest brightness, and both axes are a little to the north of this plane, the axis of symmetry being the farther removed. Furthermore, as already stated, the southern border of the cone always appears better defined and brighter than the corresponding northern margin. It is very probable, if not absolutely certain, that these phenomena are exactly reversed when the zodiacal light is observed from corresponding latitudes in the southern hemisphere, and that there, its axes, both of symmetry and of greatest brightness, appear south of the ecliptic, while the northern margin is the brightest. This seems to be established by the valuable observations of Rev. George Jones, made on board the U. S. steam frigate Mississippi, in California, Japan, and the Southern Ocean. "When I was north of the ecliptic," says this observer, "the greatest part of the light of the cone appeared to the north of this line; when I was to the south of the ecliptic, it appeared to be south of it; while when my position was on the ecliptic, or in its vicinity, the zodiacal cone was equally divided by this line."

Besides the zodiacal light observed in the East and West, some observers have recognized an exceedingly faint, luminous, gauzy band, about 10 or 12 degrees wide, stretching along the ecliptic from the summit of the western to that of the eastern zodiacal cone. This faint narrow belt has been called the Zodiacal Band. It has been recognized by Mr. H. C. Lewis, who has made a study of this phenomenon, that the zodiacal band has its southern margin a little brighter and a little sharper than the northern border. This observation is in accordance with similar phenomena observed in the zodiacal light, and may have considerable importance.

In 1854, Brorsen recognized a faint, roundish, luminous spot in a point of the heavens exactly opposite to the place occupied by the Sun, which he has called "Gegenschein," or counter-glow. This luminous spot has sometimes a small nucleus, which is a little brighter than the rest. Night after night this very faint object shifts its position among the constellations, keeping always at 180 degrees from the Sun. The position of the counter-glow, like that of the zodiacal light and zodiacal band, is not precisely on the plane of the ecliptic, but a little to the north of this line. It is very probable that near the equator the phenomenon would appear different and there would correspond with this plane.

There seems to be some confusion among observers in regard to the spectrum of the zodiacal light. Some have seen a bright green line in its spectrum, corresponding to that of the aurora borealis; while others could only see a faint grayish continuous spectrum, which differs, however, from that of a faint solar light, by the fact that it presents a well-defined bright zone, gradually blending on each side with the fainter light of the continuous spectrum. I have, myself, frequently observed the faint continuous spectrum of the zodiacal light, and on one occasion recognized the green line of the aurora; but it might have been produced by the aurora itself, as yet invisible to the eye, and not by the zodiacal light, since, later in the same evening, there was a brilliant auroral display. If it were demonstrated that this green line exists in the spectrum of the zodiacal light, the fact would have importance, as tending to show that the aurora and the zodiacal light have a common origin.

Rev. Geo. Jones describes a very curious phenomenon which he observed several times a little before the moon rose above the horizon. The phenomenon consisted in a short, oblique, luminous cone rising from the Moon's place in the direction of the ecliptic. This phenomenon he has called the Moon Zodiacal Light. In 1874, I had an opportunity to observe a similar phenomenon when the Moon was quite high in the sky. By taking the precaution to screen the Moon's disk by the interposition of some buildings between it and my eye, I saw two long and narrow cones of light parallel to the ecliptic issuing from opposite sides of our satellite. The phenomenon could not possibly be attributed to vapors in our atmosphere, since the sky was very clear at the moment of the observation. Later on, these appendages disappeared with the formation of vapors near the Moon, but they reappeared an hour later, when the sky had cleared off, and continued visible for twenty minutes longer, and then disappeared in a clear sky.

Although the zodiacal light has been studied for over two centuries, no wholly satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon has yet been given. Now, as in Cassini's time, it is generally considered by astronomers to be due to a kind of lens-shaped ring surrounding the Sun, and extending a little beyond the Earth's orbit. This ring is supposed to lie in the plane of the ecliptic, and to be composed of a multitude of independent meteoric particles circulating in closed parallel orbits around the Sun. But many difficulties lie in the way of this theory. It seems as incompetent to explain the slow and rapid changes in the light of this object as it is to explain the contractions and extensions of its cone. It fails, moreover, to explain the flickering motions, the coruscations observed in its light, or the displacement of its cone and of its axes of brightness and symmetry by a mere change in the position of the observer. Rev. Geo. Jones, unable to explain by this theory the phenomena which came under his observation, has proposed another, which supposes the zodiacal light to be produced by a luminous ring surrounding the Earth, this ring not extending as far as the orbit of the Moon. But this theory also fails in many important points, so that at present no satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon can be given.

As the phenomenon is connected in some way with the Sun, and as we have many reasons to believe this body to be always more or less electrified, it might be supposed that the Sun, acting by induction on our globe, develops feeble electric currents in the rarefied gases of the superior regions of our atmosphere, and there forms a kind of luminous ridge moving with the Sun in a direction contrary to the diurnal motion, and so producing the zodiacal light. On this hypothesis, the counter-glow would be the result of a smaller cone of light generated by the solar induction on the opposite point of the Earth.

Plate 5, which sufficiently explains itself, represents the zodiacal light as it appeared in the West on the evening of February 20th, 1876. All the stars are placed in their proper position, and their relative brightness is approximately shown by corresponding variations in size--the usual and almost the only available means of representation. Of course, it must be remembered that a star does not, in fact, show any disk even in the largest telescopes, where it appears as a mere point of light, having more or less brilliancy. The cone of light rises obliquely along the ecliptic, and the point forming its summit is found in the vicinity of the well-known group of stars, called the Pleiades, in the constellation of Taurus, or the Bull.

THE MOON

PLATE VI