Part 14

When observed under very favorable conditions, all the lighter belts appear as if composed of masses of small cloudlets, resembling the white opaque clouds seen in our atmosphere. This, as already stated, is particularly noticeable on the equatorial belt. It is not unusual, when Jupiter is in quadrature, to see some of the most conspicuous white spots casting a shadow opposite to the Sun; a fact which sufficiently indicates that these spots are at different levels. They probably form the summits of vast banks of clouds floating high up in the atmosphere of Jupiter.

What we see of Jupiter is chiefly a vaporous, cloudy envelope. If our sight penetrates anywhere deeper into the interior, it can only be through the narrow fissures of this envelope, which appear as gray or dark streaks or spots. That most of the visible surface of Jupiter is simply a cloudy covering, is abundantly proved by the proper motion of its spots, which sometimes becomes very great.

In periods of calm, very few changes are noticeable in the markings of the planet, except, perhaps, some slight modifications of form in the cloudy, equatorial belt which, in general, is much more liable to changes than the other belts. But the Jovian surface is not always so tranquil, great changes being observed during the terrific storms which sometimes occur on this mighty planet, when all becomes disorder and confusion on its usually calm surface; and nothing on the Earth can give us a conception of the velocity with which some of its clouds and spots are animated. New belts quickly form, while old ones disappear. The usual parallelism of the belts no more exists. Huge, white, cumulus-like masses advance and spread out, the rosy equatorial belt enlarges sometimes to two or three times its usual size, and occupies two-thirds, or more, of the disk, the rosy tint spreading out in a very short time. At times very dark bands extending across the disk are transformed into knots or dark spots, which encircle the planet with a belt, as it were, of jet black beads. Sometimes, also, a secondary but narrower rosy belt forms either in the northern or the southern hemisphere, and remains visible for a few days or for years at a time.

On May 25, 1876, I witnessed one of the grandest commotions which can be conceived as taking place in an atmosphere. All the southern hemisphere of Jupiter, from equator to pole, was in rapid motion, the belts and spots being transported entirely across the disk, from the eastern to the western limb, in one hour's time, during which the equatorial belt swelled to twice its original breadth, towards the south.

Now, when one stops for a moment to think what is signified by that motion of the dark spots across the little telescopic disk of Jupiter in an hour's time, he may arrive at some conception of the magnitude of the Jovian storms, compared with those of our globe. The circumference of Jupiter's equator, as stated above, is 276,460 miles; half this number, or 138,230 miles, represents the length of the equatorial line seen from the Earth. Now, after taking into account the rotation of the planet, which somewhat diminishes the apparent motion, we arrive at the astonishing result that the spots and markings were carried along by this Jovian storm, at the enormous rate of 110,584 miles an hour, or over 30.7 miles a second. On our globe, a hurricane or tornado, which blows at the rate of 100 miles an hour, sweeps everything before it. What, then, must be expected from a velocity over 1,105 times as great? Enormous as this motion may appear, its occurrence cannot be doubted, since it is disclosed by direct observation.

The surface of Jupiter, it would seem, has its periods of calm and activity like that of the Sun, although it is not yet known, as it is for the latter, that they recur with approximate regularity.

My observations of this planet, which embrace a period of ten years, seem to point in that direction, for they show, at least, that Jupiter has its years of calm and its years of disturbances. The year 1876 was a year of extraordinary disturbance on Jupiter. Changes in the markings were going on all the time, and no one form could be recognized the next day, or even sometimes the next hour, as shown above. The cloudy envelope of the planet was in constant motion, the equatorial belt, especially, showing the signs of greatest disturbance, being, for the most part, two or three times as wide as in other years. After 1876 the calm was very great on the planet, only a slight change now and then being noticeable, the same forms being recognized day after day, month after month, and even year after year. In one case the same marking has been observed for seventeen consecutive months, and in another for twenty-eight months. This state of quietude lasted until October, 1880, when considerable commotion occurred on the northern hemisphere, where large round black spots, somewhat resembling the Sun-spots, formed in the cloudy atmosphere, and finally changed, towards the end of December, into a narrow pink belt, which still exists.

Observed November 1, 1880, at 9h. 30m. P.M.]

The most curious marking ever seen on Jupiter is undoubtedly the great Red Spot, observed on the southern hemisphere of this planet for the last three years. This interesting object, seen first in July, 1878, disappeared for a time, reappeared on September 25 of the same year, and has remained visible until now. When seen by me in September, it was much elongated, and sharply pointed on one side, like a spear-head, but it subsequently acquired an irregular form, with short appendages protruding from its northern border. At first, the changes were great and frequent, but at length it acquired the regular oval form, which, with but slight modifications, it has retained until now. During the month of November, 1880, I noticed two small black specks upon this Red Spot, and they were seen again in January of the succeeding year, by Mr. Alvan Clark, Jr. When the spot had attained its oval shape, it appeared part of the time surrounded with a white luminous ring of cloudy forms which, however, was changing more or less all the time, being sometimes invisible. The color of this curious spot is a brilliant rosy red, tinged with vermilion, and altogether different in shade from the pinkish color of the equatorial belt. The size of the spot varies, but of late its changes have been slight. Its longer diameter may be estimated at 8,000 miles, and the shorter at 2,200 miles. The Red Spot is represented on Plate IX. with its natural color, and as it appears at the moments most favorable for observation. In ordinary cases its color does not appear so brilliant, but paler.

It is difficult to account for the color of the equatorial belt and that of the Red Spot; but it is known, at least, that the material to which they are due cannot be situated at the level of the general surface visible to us, and especially that of the cloudy forms of the equatorial zone. Undoubtedly the red layer lies deeper than the superficial envelope of the planet, although it does not seem to be very deeply depressed.

Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which revolve around the planet at various distances, and shine like stars of the 6th and 7th magnitude. It is said that under very favorable circumstances, and in a very clear sky, the satellites can be seen with the naked eye, but this requires exceptionally keen eyes, since the glare of the planet is so strong as to overpower the comparatively faint light of the satellites. However, I myself have sometimes seen, without the aid of the telescope, two or three of the satellites as a single object, when they were closely grouped on the same side of Jupiter.

The four moons of Jupiter are all larger than our Moon, except the first, which has about the same diameter. They range in size from 2,300 to 3,400 miles in diameter, the third being the largest; the determination of their diameter is by no means accurate, however, as it is difficult to measure such small objects with precision. Their mean distance from the centre of Jupiter varies from 267,000 to 1,192,000 miles, the first satellite, the nearest to the planet, being a little farther from Jupiter then our satellite is from us. The four satellites revolve around the planet in orbits whose planes have a slight inclination to the equator of Jupiter, and consequently to the ecliptic. The diameter of the largest satellite is nearly half that of the Earth, or 3,436 miles; while its volume is five times that of our Moon. The period of revolution of these satellites varies from 1d. 18h. for the first, to 16d. 16h. for the last.

Owing to the slight inclination of the plane of their orbits to that of the planet, the three first satellites, and generally the fourth, pass in front of the disk and also through the shadow of the planet at every revolution, and are accordingly eclipsed. Their passages behind Jupiter's disk are called occultations; those in front of it, transits. The eclipses, the occultations and the transits of the moons of Jupiter are interesting and important phenomena; the eclipses being sometimes observed for the rough determination of longitudes at sea.

The satellites in transit present some curious phenomena. When they enter the disk, they appear intensely luminous upon its grayish border; but as they advance, they seem by degrees to lose their brightness, until they finally become undistinguishable from the luminous surface of Jupiter. It sometimes happens, however, that the first, the third and the fourth satellites, after ceasing to appear as bright spots, continue to be visible as dark spots upon the bright central portions of the planet's disk; but in these cases their disks appear smaller than the shadows they cast. Undoubtedly these satellites have extensive atmospheres, since they sometimes pass unperceived across the central parts of Jupiter, this being probably when their atmospheres are condensed into clouds, strongly reflecting light; while when these clouds are absent, we can see their actual surface, with traces of the dark spots upon them similar to those on Mars.

From the variation in the brightness of these satellites, which is said to be always observed in the same part of their orbit, William Herschel was led to suppose that these bodies, like our Moon, rotate upon their axes in the same period in which they move round the planet, so that they always present the same face to Jupiter; but these conclusions have been denied. From my observations it is apparent, however, that the light reflected by them varies in intensity as well as in color. But this is rather to be attributed to the presence of an atmosphere surrounding these bodies, which when cloudy reflects more light than when clear, with corresponding changes in the color of the light.

The satellites in transit are sometimes preceded or followed, according to the position of the Sun, by a round black spot having about the same size as the satellite itself. This black spot is the shadow of the satellite cast on the vapory envelope of Jupiter, similar to the shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth, during eclipses of the Sun; in fact, all the Jovian regions traversed by these shadows have the Sun totally eclipsed. Sometimes it happens that the shadow appears elliptical. This occurs either when it is observed very near the limb, or when entering upon a round, cloud-like spot. This effect is attributable to the perspective under which the shadow is seen on the spherical globe or spot.

The proper motion of the satellites in the Jovian sky is much more rapid than that of the Moon in our sky. During one Jovian day of ten hours, the first satellite advances 84°; the second, 42°; the third, 20° and the fourth, 9°. The first satellite passes from New Moon to its first quarter in a little more than a Jovian day, while the fourth occupies ten such days in attaining the same phase.

In density, as well as in physical constitution, Jupiter differs widely from the interior planets, and especially from the Earth; and, as has been shown, it is surrounded by a dense, opaque, cloudy layer, which is almost always impenetrable to the sight, and hides from view the nucleus, which we may conceive to exist under this vaporous envelope. In 1876, the year of the great Jovian disturbances, I observed frequently in the northern hemisphere of the planet a very curious phenomenon, which seems to prove that its cloudy envelope is at times partially absent in some places, its vapors being apparently either condensed, or transported to other parts of its surface, and that, therefore, a considerable part of the real globe of the planet was visible at these places. The phenomenon consisted in the deformation of the northern limb, which had a much shorter radius on all of this hemisphere situated northward of the white belt which adjoins the equatorial zone. The deformation of the limb on both sides, where it passed from a longer to a shorter radius, was abrupt, and at right angles to the limb, forming there a steplike indentation which was very prominent. The polar segment having a smaller radius, appeared unusually dark, and was not striped, as usual, but uniform in tint throughout. On September 27th, the third satellite passed over this dark segment, and emerged from the western border, a little below the place where the limb was abruptly deformed, as above described. When the satellite had fully emerged from this limb, it was apparent that if the portion of the limb having a longer radius had been prolonged a little below, and as far as the satellite, it would have enclosed it within its border, and thus retarded the time of emersion. The depth of deformation of the limb was accordingly greater than the diameter of the third satellite, and certainly more than 4,000 miles. That the phenomenon was real, is proved by the fact that the egress of this satellite occurred at least four minutes sooner than the time predicted for it in the American Ephemeris. Other observations seem to point in the same direction, since some of the satellites which were occulted have been seen through the limb of Jupiter by different astronomers, as if this limb was sometimes semi-transparent. Another observation of mine seems to confirm these conclusions. On April 24th, 1877, at 15h. 25m. the shadow of the first satellite was projected on the dark band forming the northern border of the equatorial belt, the shadow being then not far from the east limb. Close to this shadow, and on its western side, it was preceded by a secondary shadow, which was fainter, but had the same apparent size. This round dark spot was not the satellite itself, as I had supposed at first, since this object was yet outside of the planet, on the east, and entered upon it only at 16h. 4m. I watched closely this strange phenomenon, and at 16h. 45m., when the shadow had already crossed about ¾ of the disk, it was still preceded by the secondary, or mock shadow, as it may be called; the same relative distance having been kept all the while between the two objects, which had therefore traveled at the same rate. It is obvious that this dark spot could not be one of the planet's markings, since the shadow of the first satellite moves more quickly on the surface of Jupiter than a spot on the same surface travels by the effect of rotation, so that in this case the shadow would soon have passed over this marking, and left it behind, during the time occupied by the observation. From these observations it seems very probable that Jupiter has a nucleus, either solid or liquid, which lies several thousand mites below the surface of its cloudy envelope. It is also probable that the uniformly shaded dark segment seen in 1876, was a portion of the surface of this nucleus itself. When the cloudy envelope is semi-transparent at the place situated on a line with an occulted satellite and the eye of an observer, this satellite may accordingly remain visible for a time through the limb, as shown by observation. The phenomenon of the mock shadow may also be attributed to a similar cause, where semi-transparent vapors receive the shadow of a satellite at their surface, while at the same time part of this shadow, passing through the semi-transparent vapors, may be seen at the surface of the nucleus, or of a layer of opaque clouds situated at some distance below the surface.

Some astronomers are inclined to think that Jupiter is at a high temperature, and self-luminous to a certain extent. If this planet is self-luminous to any degree, we might expect that some light would be thrown upon the satellites when they are crossing the shadow cast into space by the planet; but when they cross this shadow they are totally invisible in the best telescopes, a proof that they do not receive much light from the non-illuminated side of Jupiter. It would, indeed, seem probable that some of the intensely white spots occasionally seen on the equatorial belt of the planet are self-luminous in a degree, yet not enough to render the satellites visible while they are immersed in Jupiter's shadow. It does not seem impossible that the planet should have the high temperature attributed to it, when we remember the terrific storms observed in its atmosphere, which, owing to the great distance of Jupiter from the Sun, do not seem to be attributable to this body, but rather to some local cause within the envelope of the planet.

Astronomy, which is a science of observation, is naturally silent with regard to the inhabitants of Jupiter. If there are any such inhabitants, they are confined to the domain of conjecture, under the dense cloudy envelope of the planet. The conditions of habitability on Jupiter must differ very widely from those of our globe. Comparatively little direct light from the Sun reaches the surface of the globe of Jupiter, except that which passes through the narrow openings forming the dark clouds. All the rest of the planet's surface, being covered perpetually by opaque clouds, receives only diffused light. On Jupiter there are practically no seasons, since its axis is nearly perpendicular to its orbit. The force of gravity on the surface of Jupiter being more than double what it is on the Earth, living bodies would there have more than double the weight of similar bodies on the Earth. Furthermore, Jupiter only receives 0.011 of the light and heat which we receive from the Sun; and its year is nearly equal to 12 of our years. If there are living beings on Jupiter, they must, then, be entirely different from any known to us, and they may have forms never dreamed of in our most fantastic conceptions.

The two round black spots represented towards the central parts of Plate IX. are the shadows of the first and second satellite; while the two round white spots seen on the left of the disk, are the satellites themselves, as they appeared at the moment of the observation. The first satellite and its shadow are the nearest to the equator; while the second satellite and its shadow are higher, the last being projected on the Great Red Spot. The row of dark circular spots represented on the northern, or lower hemisphere, when they first appeared, had some resemblance to Sun-spots without a penumbra, with bright markings around them, resembling faculæ. These round spots subsequently enlarged considerably, until they united along the entire line, encircling the planet, and finally forming a narrow pink belt, which is still visible.

THE PLANET SATURN

PLATE X

Saturn, which is next to Jupiter in order of distance from the Sun, while not the largest, is certainly the most beautiful and interesting of all the planets, with his grand and unique system of rings, and his eight satellites, which, like faithful servants, attend the planet's interminable journey through space.

Seen with the naked eye, Saturn shines in the night like a star of the first magnitude, whose dull, soft whiteness is, however, far from attaining the brilliancy of Venus or Jupiter, although it sometimes approaches Mars in brightness. Saturn hardly ever exhibits the phenomenon of scintillation, or twinkling, a peculiarity which makes it easily distinguishable among the stars and planets of the heavens.

The synodical period of Saturn occupies 1 year and 13 days, so that every 378 days, on an average, this planet holds the same position in the sky relatively to the Sun and the Earth.

The mean distance of Saturn from the Sun is a little over 9½ times that of our globe, or 872,000,000 miles. Owing to the orbital eccentricity, this distance may increase to 921,000,000 miles, when the planet is in aphelion; or decrease to 823,000,000 miles, when it is in perihelion; Saturn being therefore 98,000,000 miles nearer to the Sun when in perihelion than in aphelion. If gravitation were free to exert its influence alone, Saturn would fall into the Sun in 5 years and 2 months.

The distance of Saturn from the Earth varies, according to the position of the two planets in their respective orbits. At the time of opposition, when the Earth lies between the Sun and Saturn, this distance is smallest; while, on the contrary, at the time of conjunction, when the Sun lies between the Earth and Saturn, it is greatest. Owing, however, to the eccentricity of the orbits of Saturn and our globe, and the inclination of their planes to each other, and owing also to the variable heliocentric longitude of the perihelion, the distance of the two planets from each other at their successive conjunctions and oppositions is rendered extremely variable. At present it is when the oppositions of Saturn occur in December that this planet comes nearest to us; while when the conjunctions take place in June, the distance of Saturn from the Earth is the greatest possible. In the former case the distance of the planet from our globe is only 730,000,000 miles; while in the last it is 1,014,000,000 miles, the difference between the nearest and farthest points of Saturn's approach to us being no less than 284,000,000 miles, or over three times the mean distance of the Sun from the Earth.