Part 11

Although inferior in importance to the eclipses of the Sun, the eclipses of the Moon are, nevertheless, very interesting and remarkable phenomena, which never fail to produce a deep impression on the mind of the observer, inasmuch as they give him a clear insight into the silent motions of the planetary bodies.

At the mean distance of the Moon from the Earth, the diameter of the conical shadow cast in space by our globe is more than twice as large as that of our satellite. But, besides this pure dark shadow of the Earth, its cone is enveloped by a partial shadow called "Penumbra," which is produced by the Sun's light being partially, but not wholly, cut off by our globe.

While the Moon is passing into the penumbra, a slight reduction of the light of that part of the disk which has entered it, is noticeable. As the progress of the Moon continues, the reduction becomes more remarkable, giving the impression that rare and invisible vapors are passing over our satellite. Some time after, a small dark-indentation, marking the instant of first contact, appears on the eastern or left-hand border of the Moon, which is always the first to encounter the Earth's shadow, since our satellite is moving from west to east. The dark indentation slowly and gradually enlarges with the onward progress of the Moon into the Earth's shadow, while the luminous surface of its disk diminishes in the same proportion. The form of the Earth's shadow on the Moon's disk clearly indicates the rotundity of our globe by its circular outline. Little by little the dark segment covers the Moon's disk, and its crescent, at last reduced to a mere thread of light, disappears at the moment of the second contact. With this the phase of totality begins, our satellite being then completely involved in the Earth's shadow.

The Moon remains so eclipsed for a period of time which varies with its distance from the Earth, and with the point of its orbit where it crosses the conical shadow. When it passes through the middle of this shadow, while its distance from our globe is the least, the total phase of an eclipse of the Moon may last nearly two hours. The left-hand border of our satellite having gone first into the Earth's shadow, is also the first to emerge, and, at the moment of doing so, it receives the Sun's light, and totality ends with the third contact. The lunar crescent gradually increases in breadth after its exit from the shadow, and finally the Moon recovers its fully illuminated disk as before, at the moment its western border leaves the Earth's shadow. Soon after, it passes out of the penumbra, and the eclipse is over. In total eclipses, the interval of time from the first to last contact may last 5h. 30m, but it is usually shorter.

Soon after the beginning of an eclipse, the dark segment produced by the Earth's shadow on the Moon's disk generally appears of a dark grayish opaque color, but with the progress of the phenomenon, this dark tint is changed into a dull reddish color, which, gradually increasing, attains its greatest intensity when the eclipse is total. At that moment the color of the Moon is of a dusky, reddish, coppery hue, and the general features of the Moon's surface are visible as darker and lighter tints of the same color. It sometimes happens, however, that our satellite does not exhibit this peculiar coppery tint, but appears either blackish or bluish, in which case it is hardly distinguishable from the sky.

It is very rare for the Moon to disappear completely during totality, and even when involved in the deepest part of the Earth's shadow, our satellite usually remains visible to the naked eye, or, at least, to the telescope. This phenomenon is to be attributed to the fact that the portion of the solar rays which traverse the lower strata of our atmosphere are strongly refracted, and bend inward in such a manner that they fall on the Moon, and sufficiently illuminate its surface to make it visible. The reddish color observed is caused by the absorption of the blue rays of light by the vapors which ordinarily-saturate the lower regions of our atmosphere, leaving only red rays to reach the Moon's surface. Of course, these phenomena are liable to vary with every eclipse, and depend almost exclusively on the meteorological conditions of our atmosphere.

In some cases the phase of totality lasts longer than it should, according to calculation. This can be attributed to the fact that the Earth is enveloped in a dense atmosphere, in which opaque clouds of considerable extent are often forming at great elevations. Such strata of clouds, in intercepting the Sun's light, would have, of course, the effect of increasing the diameter of the Earth's shadow, in a direction corresponding to the place they occupy, and, if the Moon were moving in this direction, would increase the phase of total obscuration.

The eclipses of the Moon, like those of the Sun, as shown above, have a cycle of 18 years, 11 days and 7 hours, and recur after this period of time in nearly the same order. They can, therefore, be approximately predicted by adding 18y. 11d. 7h. to the date of the eclipses which have occurred during the preceding period. During this cycle 70 eclipses will occur--41 being eclipses of the Sun and 29 eclipses of the Moon. At no time can there ever be more than seven eclipses in a year, and there are never less than two. When there are only two eclipses in a year, they are both eclipses of the Sun.

Although the number of solar eclipses occurring at some point or other of the Earth's surface is greater than that of the eclipses of the Moon, yet at any single terrestrial station the eclipses of the Moon are the more frequent. While an eclipse of the Sun is only visible on a narrow belt, which is but a very small fraction of the hemisphere then illuminated by the Sun, an eclipse of the Moon is visible from all the points of the Earth which have the Moon above their horizon at the time. Furthermore, an eclipse of the Sun is not visible at one time over the whole length of its narrow tract, but moves gradually from one end of it to the other; while, on the contrary, an eclipse of the Moon begins and ends at the very same instant for all places from which it can be seen, but, of course, not at the same local time, which varies with the longitude of the place.

Observed October 24, 1874]

The partial eclipse of the Moon, represented on Plate VII., shows quite plainly the configuration of our satellite as seen with the naked eye during the eclipse, with its bright and dark spots, and its radiating streaks. This eclipse was observed on October 24th, 1874.

THE PLANETS

Around the Sun circulate a number of celestial bodies, which are called "Planets." The planets are opaque bodies, and appear luminous because their surfaces reflect the light they receive from the Sun.

The planets are situated at various distances from the Sun, and revolve around this body in widely different periods of time, which are, however, constant for each planet, so far as ascertained, and doubtless are so in the other cases.

The ideal line traced in space by a planet in going around the Sun, is called the orbit of the planet; while the period of time employed by a planet to travel over its entire orbit and return to its starting point, is called the sidereal revolution, or year of the planet. The dimensions of the orbits of the different planets necessarily vary with the distance of these bodies from the Sun, as does also the length of their sidereal revolution.

The distance of a planet from the Sun does not remain constant, but is subject to variations, which in certain cases are quite large. These variations result from the fact that the planetary orbits are not perfect circles having the Sun for centre, but curves called "Ellipses," which have two centres, or foci, one of which is always occupied by the Sun. This is in accordance with Kepler's first law.

The ideal point situated midway between the two foci is called the centre of the ellipse, or orbit; while the imaginary straight line which passes through both foci and the centre, with its ends at opposite points of the ellipse, is called "the major axis" of the orbit. It is also known as "the line of the apsides." The ideal straight line which, in passing through the centre of the orbit, cuts the major axis at right angles, and is prolonged on either side to opposite points on the ellipse, is called "the minor axis" of the orbit.

When a planet reaches that extremity of the major axis of its orbit which is the nearest to the Sun, it is said to be in its "perihelion;" while, when it arrives at the other extremity, which is farthest from this body, it is said to be in its "aphelion." When a planet reaches either of the two opposite points of its orbit situated at the extremities of its minor axis, it is said to be at its mean distance from the Sun.

The rapidity with which the planets move on their orbits varies with their distance from the Sun; the farther they are from this body, the more slowly they move. The rapidity of their motion is greatest when they are in perihelion, and least when they are in aphelion, having its mean rate when these bodies are crossing either of the extremities of the minor axes of their orbits.

The imaginary line which joins the Sun to a planet at any point of its orbit, and moves with this planet around the Sun, is called "the radius vector." According to Kepler's second law, whatever may be the distance of a planet from the Sun, the radius vector sweeps over equal areas of the plane of the planet's orbit in equal times.

There is a remarkable relation between the distance of the planets from the Sun and their period of revolution, in consequence of which the squares of their periodic times are respectively equal to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun. From this third law of Kepler, it results that the mere knowledge of the mean distance of a planet from the Sun enables one to know its period of revolution, and vice versa.

The orbit described by the Earth around the Sun in a year, or the apparent path of the Sun in the sky, is called "the ecliptic." Like that of all the planetary orbits, the plane of the ecliptic passes through the Sun's centre. The ecliptic has a great importance in astronomy, inasmuch as it is the fundamental plane to which the orbits and motions of all planets are referred.

The orbits of the larger planets are not quite parallel to the ecliptic, but more or less inclined to this plane; although the inclination is small, and does not exceed eight degrees. On account of this inclination of the orbits, the planets, in accomplishing their revolutions around the Sun, are sometimes above and sometimes below the plane of the ecliptic. A belt extending 8° on each side of the ecliptic, and, therefore, 16° in width, comprises within its limits the orbits of all the principal planets. This belt is called "the Zodiac."

Since all the planets have the Sun for a common centre, and have their orbits inclined to the ecliptic, it follows that each of these orbits must necessarily intersect the plane of the ecliptic at two opposite points situated at the extremities of a straight line passing through the Sun's centre. The two opposite points on a planetary orbit where its intersections with the ecliptic occur, are called "the Nodes," and the imaginary line joining them, which passes through the Sun's centre, is called "the line of the nodes." The node situated at the point where a planet crosses the ecliptic from the south to the north, is called "the ascending node" while that situated where the planet crosses from north to south, is called "the descending node."

The planets circulating around the Sun are eight in number, but, beside these, there is a multitude of very small planets, commonly called "asteroids," which also revolve around our luminary. The number of asteroids at present known surpasses two hundred, and constantly increases by new discoveries. In their order of distance from the Sun the principal planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The orbits of the asteroids are comprised between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

When the principal planets are considered in regard to their differences in size, they are separated into two distinct groups of four planets each, viz.: the small planets and the large planets. The orbits of the small planets are wholly within the region occupied by the orbits of the asteroids, while those of the large planets are wholly without this region.

When the planets are considered in regard to their position with reference to the Earth, they are called "inferior planets" and "superior planets." The inferior planets comprise those whose orbits are within the orbit of our globe; while the superior planets are those whose orbits lie beyond the orbit of the Earth.

Since the orbits of the inferior planets lie within the orbit of the Earth, the angular distances of these bodies from the Sun, as seen from the Earth, must always be included within fixed limits; and these planets must seem to oscillate from the east to the west, and from the west to the east of the Sun during their sidereal revolution. In this process of oscillation these planets sometimes pass between the Earth and the Sun, and sometimes behind the Sun. When they pass between us and the Sun they are said to be in "inferior conjunction," while, when they pass behind the Sun, they are said to be in "superior conjunction." When such a planet reaches its greatest distance, either east or west, it is said to be at its greatest elongation east or west, as the case may be, or in quadrature.