Part 4

Once gigantic spider-like creatures ruled this world. They were as big as lions or gorillas. Their realm was the earth of the Silurian geological era of 350,000,000 years ago—a time of warm, quiet seas which, especially in the northern hemisphere, covered large areas that now are dry land. These creatures were the euripterids, or sea scorpions, whose nearest extant relatives are the horseshoe crabs with sky-blue blood that are common along the Atlantic coast of the United States, and the venom-fanged land scorpions. They exceeded in size all living invertebrate animals.

Many were five to six feet long; one was nine feet long. Presumably they were free-swimming, predacious creatures with massive, crushing jaws. Their chief prey, it is believed, were the much smaller, crab-like trilobites with whom they shared a common ancestry. These were shelled animals the imprints of whose hard shells in mud (which later became rock) are among the most ancient records of animal life on this planet. The trilobites were creatures who crawled on shallow sea bottom. Their only defense was to roll themselves in balls. They appear to have been the dominant form of life for at least 100,000,000 years. They continued a precarious existence after the evolution of the great pseudo-spiders, but were well on their way to extinction. The massive jaws of the euripterids could crush their thin shells with ease. The dominance of these new masters of the sea would be challenged only by the gigantic mollusks, but for many millenia they appear to have held their own against these frightful monsters.

Their decline had started by the end of the Silurian period and they were extinct in another hundred million years. The reason for their decline is unknown, but perhaps it was related to some decided change in temperature and distribution of the waters. Remarkably well preserved remains of the monsters have been found imbedded in limestone on Oesel Island, in the Baltic. During the Silurian era life was just starting to emigrate from the oceans and establish a precarious foothold on land. Among the earliest land fossils are those of small scorpions, distantly related to the erstwhile master race. The euripterids themselves, however, never tried to leave the sea.

Worms With a Thousand Eyes

There are worms with a thousand eyes. They are, for the most part, animals of the dank, dark floors of tropical rain forests.

They are narrow, brilliantly colored ribbons of slimy skin which glide at a speed of about six feet an hour over damp moss and leaves in the everlasting twilight. When alarmed they can break up instantly into scores of “blobs of slime” and in a few hours each piece will become a complete new worm. One of them can eat five-sixths of its own body and entirely recover.

These fantastic creatures are the terricola or land planarians—lowliest of worms and one of the lowliest forms of animal life. Only the microscopic protozoa, the slime moulds, the sponges, jellyfish, and corals are more primitive.

They range from fractions of an inch to nearly a foot in length. They are hunters and scavengers. Nearly all are creatures of darkness and dim light—survivors of the haunted dawn of life on earth. They probably are quite close to the ancestral form of all worms. All are free-living animals, although related closely to the degenerate flukes and cestodes, which are internal parasites of man and other animals.

They belong to an enormous clan. There are several hundred known species and perhaps as many more still unknown. These worms are found over most of the world but most abundantly in the damp tropical and sub-tropical rain forests. They are seldom seen in nature although they are fairly well-known in experimental biology classes, for which they are purchased from dealers. Australia has about sixty species. America may have many more, most of which remain undescribed. One would be likely to come upon them only by accident.

Among these land planarians are some of the most fantastic creatures of the animal kingdom. They have been described as “gliding strips of skin.” The family includes some of the most brilliantly colored of all living things. They probably represent the earliest traces of eyes and brains in the world.

The “eyes” of the terricola are black dots arranged in two parallel rows along both sides of the back. Some species are two-eyed. Many varieties are eyeless. Hundred-eyed worms are quite common. The black dots are light-sensitive. Presumably they represent the beginning of vision. By means of them the worms can distinguish between light and darkness. They also tell the direction from which light comes. Actually, however, planarians without eyes have the same ability, but they are slower to react. This is demonstrably true for fresh-water forms. For most of the land forms at least exposure to strong sunlight would be fatal.

Each of the eye dots has a nerve connection with the brain. It is quite unlikely, however, that the animals actually see anything, in the sense of discriminating specific objects in their surroundings. In a few species, however, from two to four of these black dots nearest to the brain seem somewhat more complicated than the others. As the faculty of vision evolves among animals these will become actual eyes and all the other light-sensitive spots will be discarded. In most planarians, however, the number of eyes increases with the age of the animal.

Nearly all are predatory meat eaters. They are both hunters and scavengers. Some pursue, kill, and eat living animals, such as earthworms and small mollusks, as big as themselves. They apparently are able to locate their victims at some distances by an already evolved sense of smell. One blind Brazilian species is said to pursue earthworms into their burrows several feet underground.

When the victim is overtaken the planarian first enfolds it in its sheetlike, slimy body. Then from its mouth, always on the underside of the body near the middle instead of at the head end, it projects its pharynx, a muscular tube which is part of the digestive system. From this is exuded a substance of some sort which slowly liquifies the flesh. Then the liquid is sucked into the body through the mouth. Digestion then is completed within the digestive tract by special cells which engulf minute particles in the same way as they are engulfed and digested by one-celled animals, the amoeba. The nature of the dissolving material exuded from the pharynx is unknown. It is believed, however, to contain a mixture of enzymes such as those found in the intestinal tracts of higher animals.

Planarians may attack healthy animals and overpower them in spite of their violent struggles against being enfolded in the slimy skin. They are, however, particularly attracted to the sick and injured which they apparently locate by smell. Most of these worms are devourers of dead flesh. A common method of capturing fresh-water forms is to leave a bit of liver or other raw meat exposed in an area they are likely to frequent. Both water and probably land forms will congregate around it. Then the collector is likely to have a difficult job. As the naturalist William Beebe says about one large Venezuelan rain forest species: “To pry one loose and put it in a bottle is like pouring thick, cold molasses mixed with thick glue.”

To their activities as scavengers of the forest floor these ancient worms owe their place in the economy of nature. They normally feed several times a week. When kept without food, however, they can stay alive for months. They gradually shrink in size as they digest themselves. The internal organs are reduced little by little as they are absorbed for food. The first to disappear are the reproductive organs. Most planarians have both male and female reproductive systems. Then come the muscles of the body wall. Never however, do the worms eat their own brains or nervous systems, although the brain may be reduced greatly in size. The I Am of the worm can devour its vestments of protoplasm; it cannot eat itself. When food is available again the organs are regenerated and return to normal size. Instances are recorded where planarians have reduced their length from slightly more than an inch to less than a seventh of an inch in six months.

Closely related to this practice of “eating themselves” is the remarkable ability of the terricolae to break themselves into small fragments each of which will regenerate into a complete worm. This capacity probably has been a major factor in their survival through the aeons since multi-celled life began on earth. What might seem to be their outstanding weakness in the constant struggle for survival—their soft bodies and extremely loose organization—has become their major strength. A planarian can lose at least nine-tenths of its body and still preserve its individual existence. This self-shattering phenomenon constitutes the worm’s chief defense in emergencies. It comes into play when any danger threatens. The regenerating ability, especially of fresh-water forms, differs considerably in degree from species to species. Some are unable to regenerate a “brain” out of fragments of the rear part of the body. Complete in every other respect, the remade worms seem incapable of the typical gliding movements of the race. They remain quiet most of the time but can move forward slowly. A tendency to move in circles has been observed. Fragments from the head section, however, quickly become complete animals.

All planarians actually have heads and a “brain,” of sorts. The latter consists of two minute bits of nerve tissue just behind the front of the body, oval-shaped and enclosed in a tough capsule. It serves as a center for nerve fibers extending throughout the animal. Here are coordinated the stimuli received from light and heat, and possibly those from odors and sound. When the worm goes forward, it moves its head constantly from side to side. Presumably it is exploring the way ahead for food and danger.

A terrestrial flat worm’s progress is described as “gliding,” rather than creeping or crawling. The outer surface of the body has many glands from which is exuded a mucus over which it slides. This mucus quickly hardens. From it can be made slender threads by which the worm, like a spider, can lower itself safely from projections. Because of the glue-like quality of the secretion it is able to climb perpendicular surfaces. From the hardened mucous, sometimes mixed with sand, it can make for itself a shell into which it can retire for months at a time.

Queer Fish, But Definitely

There are more than 40,000 kinds of fish in the world. Their habitats range from the profoundest depths of the seas to cold lakes and brooks on mountain timberlines. They show a bewildering diversity in their ways of life.

The smallest of fish is a Philippine goby, less than a third of an inch long and weighing a fraction of an ounce. The largest is the whale shark, found in all warm seas. Some individuals exceed twenty tons.

Some fish burrow in the mud, some swim, some walk, some fly, some breathe air. Some are timid, some bold and bloodthirsty. Some are placid, some easily irritated.

Some are highly venomous. One, found in Australian waters, weighs nearly half a ton and has poison barbs a foot long. Some of the deadliest are among the most beautifully colored.

Freshwater fish can sometimes be cut out of cakes of ice in which they have been frozen for months at a time, and completely revive. Actually the fish themselves are not frozen. The freezing point of their blood is slightly lower than that of water. They were merely “hibernating”. This may happen frequently in nature.

Some fish seem well on their way to becoming land animals. They can breathe in air better than in water.

Surgeon fish are so-called because of a sharp spine on the tail which can produce a cut like that made by a surgeon’s scalpel.

Parrot fish have beaks like parrots with which they scour algae from the coral reefs for food.