Part 32

2. A glowing vapor gives a spectrum of white lines, each vapor having its own set of bright lines, so that, from the appearance of a bright-line spectrum, one can tell the nature of the vapor or vapors whose light forms the spectrum.

3. An incandescent solid or liquid shining through absorbent vapors gives a rainbow-tinted spectrum crossed by dark lines, these dark lines having the same position as the bright lines belonging to the spectra of the vapors; so that, from the arrangement of the dark lines in such a spectrum, one can tell the nature of the vapor or vapors which surround the source of light.

The application of the new method of research to the study of the solar spectrum quickly led to a number of most interesting discoveries. It was found that, besides sodium, the sun’s atmosphere contains the vapors of iron, calcium, magnesium, chromium, and other metals. The dark lines corresponding to these elements appear unmistakably in the solar spectrum. There are other metals, such as copper and zinc, which seem to exist in the sun, though some of the corresponding dark lines have not yet been recognized. As yet it has not been proved that gold, silver, mercury, tin, lead, arsenic, antimony, or aluminium exist in the sun—though we can by no means conclude, nor indeed is it at all probable, that they are absent from his substance. The dark lines belonging to hydrogen are very well marked indeed in solar spectrum, and, as we shall see presently, the study of these lines has afforded most interesting information respecting the physical constitution of the sun.

Now we notice at once how importantly these researches into the sun’s structure bear upon the subject of this treatise. It would be indeed interesting to consider the actual condition of the central orb of the planetary scheme, to picture in imagination the metallic oceans which exist upon his surface, the continual evaporation from those oceans, the formation of metallic clouds, and the downpour of metallic showers upon the surface of the sun. But apart from such considerations, and viewing Kirchhoff’s discoveries simply in their relation to the subject of other worlds, we have enough to occupy our attention.

If it could have been shown that, in all probability, the substance of the sun consists of materials wholly different from those which exist in this earth, the conclusion obviously to be drawn from such a discovery would be that the other planets also are differently constituted. We could not find any just reason for believing that in Jupiter or Mars there exist the elements with which we are acquainted, when we found that even the central orb of the planetary system exhibits no such feature of resemblance to the earth. But now that we know, quite certainly, that the familiar elements, iron, sodium, and calcium, exist in the sun’s substance, while we are led to believe, with almost perfect assurance, that all the elements we are acquainted with also exist there, we see at once that, in all probability, the other planets are constituted in the same way. There may of course be special differences: in one planet the proportionate distribution of the elements may differ, and even differ very markedly, from that which prevails in some other planet. But the general conclusion remains, that the planets are formed of the elements which have so long been known as terrestrial; for we can not recognize any reason for believing that our earth alone, of all the orbs which circle around the sun, resembles that great central orb in general constitution.

Now, we have in this general law a means of passing beyond the bounds of the Solar System, and forming no indistinct conceptions as to the existence and character of worlds circling around other suns. For these orbs, like our sun, contain in their substance many of the so-called terrestrial elements, while it may not unsafely be asserted that all, or nearly all, those elements, and few or no elements unknown to us, exist in the substance of every single star that shines upon us from the celestial concave. Hence we conclude that round those suns also there circle orbs constituted like themselves, and therefore containing the elements with which we are familiar. And the mind is immediately led to speculate on the uses which those elements are intended to subserve. If iron, for example, is present in some noble orb circling around Sirius, we speculate not unreasonably respecting the existence on that orb—either now or in the past, or at some future time—of beings capable of applying that metal to the useful purposes which man makes it subserve. The imagination suggests immediately the existence of arts and sciences, trades and manufactures, on that distant world. We know how intimately the use of iron has been associated with the progress of human civilization, and though we must ever remain in ignorance of the actual condition of intelligent beings in other worlds, we are yet led, by the mere presence of an element which is so closely related to the wants of man, to believe, with a new confidence, that for such beings those worlds must in truth have been fashioned.

I would fain dwell longer on the thoughts suggested by the researches of Kirchhoff. Gladly too would I enter at length on an account of those interesting discoveries which have been made in connection with the total eclipses of the sun. One point, however, remains which is too intimately connected with my subject to be passed over.

I refer to the sun’s corona.

It has been proved that the solar prominences consist of glowing vapors, hydrogen being their chief constituent. It has been found also, by comparing Mr. Lockyer’s observations of the prominence-spectra with Dr. Frankland’s elaborate researches into the peculiarities presented by the spectrum of hydrogen at different pressures, that even in the very neighborhood of the solar photosphere these vapors probably exist at a pressure so moderate as to indicate that the limits of the sun’s vaporous envelope can not lie very far (relatively) from the outer solar cloud-layer.

Now, the solar corona has been seen, during total eclipses of the sun, to extend to a distance at least equal to the sun’s diameter from the eclipsed orb. So that, assuming the corona to be a solar atmosphere, it would have a depth of about eight hundred and fifty thousand miles, and being also drawn toward the sun by his enormous attractive energy (exceeding more than twenty-seven times that of the earth), it could not fail to exert a pressure on his surface exceeding many thousand-fold that of our air upon the earth. In fact, such an atmosphere, let its outermost layers be as rare as we can conceive, would yet have its lower layers absolutely liquefied, if not solidified, by the enormous pressure to which they would be subjected. We can not, then, believe this corona to be a solar atmosphere.

Yet it is quite impossible to dissociate the corona, either wholly or in part, from the sun. I am aware that physicists of eminence have attempted to do this, and not only so, but to make of the zodiacal light a terrestrial phenomenon. But they have overlooked considerations which oppose themselves irresistibly to such a conclusion.

In the first place, the mere fact that, during a total eclipse, the moon looks black, in the very heart of the corona, affords, when properly understood, the most conclusive evidence that the light of the corona comes from behind the moon. If the glare of our atmosphere could by any possibility account for the corona (which is not the case), then that glare should appear over the moon’s disk also. That this is so is proved by the fact that, when the glare really does cover the moon, as while the sun is but slightly eclipsed, the moon is not projected as a black disk on the background of the sky, though, where her outline crosses the sun, it appears black, by contrast with the intensity of his light. The point seems, however, too obvious to need discussion.

And, secondly, as Mr. Baxendell has pointed out, during totality the part of the earth’s atmosphere between the eye and the corona is not illuminated by the sun. Over a wide space all round the sun we are looking through an atmosphere which is completely dark. In fact, if the earth’s atmosphere alone were in question, we ought to see a dark or negative corona around the sun, the illuminated atmosphere only beginning to be faintly visible at a considerable angular distance from the sun. This argument, rightly understood, is altogether decisive of the question.

But the spectroscope has given certain very perplexing evidence respecting the light of the corona, and it remains that we should endeavor to see how that evidence bears on the interesting problem which the corona presents to our consideration.

During the total eclipse of 1868 the American observers found that the spectrum of the corona is continuous, but crossed by certain bright lines. If we accept the absence of dark lines as established by the evidence (which is doubtful), this result seems at first sight very difficult to explain. Referring to the principles of spectroscopic analysis stated on pp. 338-339, it will be seen that we should be led to infer that the corona consists of incandescent matter surrounded by certain glowing gases. It is difficult to suppose that this is the real explanation of the phenomenon.

Mr. Lockyer suggests that, if the corona shone by reflecting the solar light, the continuous spectrum might be accounted for by supposing the light from the glowing vapors around the sun to supply the part wanting where the solar dark lines are, and that some of these vapors shining yet more brightly would exhibit their bright lines upon the continuous background of the spectrum. This view, as applied by Mr. Lockyer to the theory that the corona is a terrestrial phenomenon, is untenable, for the reasons already adduced. But, independently of those reasons, there are others which render such a solution of the difficulty unavailable.

Now, remembering that we have two established facts for our guidance—(1) the fact that the corona can not be a solar atmosphere, and (2) the fact that it must be a solar appendage—I think a way may be found toward a satisfactory explanation.

Let it be premised that the bright lines of the coronal spectrum correspond in position to those seen in the spectrum of the aurora, and that the same lines are seen in the spectrum of the Zodiacal Light, and in that of the phosphorescent light occasionally seen over the heavens at night.

Since we have every reason to believe that the light of the aurora is due to electrical discharges taking place in the upper regions of the air, we are invited to the belief that the coronal light may be due to similar discharges taking place between the particles (of whatever nature) constituting the corona.

Now, though the appearance of an aurora is due to some special terrestrial action (however excited), yet the material substances between which the discharges take place must be assumed to be at all times present in the upper regions of air. In all probability, they are the particles of those meteors which the earth is continually encountering. And since we know that meteor-systems must be aggregated in far greater numbers near the sun than near the earth, we may regard the coronal light as due to electrical discharges excited by the sun’s action, and taking place between the members of such systems. Besides this light, however, there must necessarily be a large proportion of light reflected from these meteoric bodies. In this way the peculiar character of the coronal spectrum may be readily accounted for. We know, from the auroral spectrum, that the principal bright lines due to the electrical discharges would be precisely where we see bright lines in the coronal spectrum. But, besides these, there would be fainter bright lines corresponding to the various elements which exist in the meteoric masses. These elements, we know, are the same as those in the substance of the sun. Thus the bright lines would correspond in position with the dark lines of the solar spectrum. Hence, as light reflected by the meteors would give the ordinary solar spectrum, there would result from the combination a continuous spectrum, on which the bright lines first mentioned would be seen, as during the American eclipse.

What the polariscope has told us respecting the corona is in accordance with this view.

In the same way the quality of the Zodiacal Light admits of being perfectly accounted for, without resorting to the hypothesis that this phenomenon is a terrestrial one.

The explanation thus put forward has at least the advantage of being founded on well-established relations. We know that the auroral light is associated with the earth’s magnetism, and that meteoric bodies are continually falling upon the earth’s atmosphere. We know, also, that the sun exerts magnetic influences a thousand-fold more intense than those of the earth, and that in his neighborhood there must be many million times more meteoric systems.

But we have other and independent reasons, which must not be overlooked, for considering the corona to be of some such nature as I have suggested. Leverrier has shown that there probably exists in the neighborhood of the sun a family of bodies whose united mass suffices appreciably to affect the motions of the planet Mercury. It would not be safe to neglect considerations thus vouched for.

Mr. Baxendell also has shown that certain periodic variations in the earth’s magnetism point to the existence of such a family of bodies; and he has been able to assign to them a position according well with that determined by Leverrier.

Now, whatever opinion we form as to the exact character of the system of bodies pointed to by the researches of Leverrier and Baxendell—whether we suppose that system to form a zone around the sun, or that (as I believe) the system is merely due to the aggregation of meteoric perihelia in the sun’s neighborhood—we may be quite certain of this, that during a total solar eclipse the system could not fail to become visible. Hence there is a double objection to the view put forward by Mr. Lockyer and others. In the first place, it fails to account for the appearance presented by the corona; in the second place, it fails to render an account of the implied non-appearance of the system which, according to the researches of Leverrier and Baxendell, circles around the sun.

Jupiter and Saturn are shown in their true axial positions, Uranus and Neptune in the axial positions inferred from the motions of their satellites]

We know that the sun is the sole source whence light and heat are plentifully supplied to the worlds which circle around him. The question immediately suggests itself—Whence does the sun derive those amazing stores of force from whence he is continually supplying his dependent worlds? We know that, were the sun a mass of burning matter, he would be consumed in a few thousand years. We know that, were he simply a heated body, radiating light and heat continually into space, he would in like manner have exhausted all his energies in a few thousand years—a mere day in the history of his system. Whence, then, comes the enormous supply of force which he has afforded for millions on millions of years, and which also our reason tells us he will continue to afford while the worlds which circle around him have need of it—in other words, for countless ages to come?