Part 14

Who were the originators of this nomenclature as a whole?

The Arabs, and particularly the nomad Arabs. To prove this we have only to cast a glance at the names in the first two classes.

The inhabitants of the northern part of the Arabian peninsula, the so-called “desert” and “stony” Arabia, for the most part, lead a nomadic kind of life.

The country is a treeless and waterless plain covered with naked rocks and sand-drifted hills, on which lie scattered single oases watered by springs and glorified with a luxuriant vegetation. On these the Arabs camp with their herds, and do not leave them until the provender is consumed, or until more powerful tribes force them to depart. They call themselves Bedâvi (Bedouins), that is, Scenitæ, Nomads, as they were called by the Greeks. These nomads, cut off from all intercourse with the world around them, who have never been subjugated by a foreign power, have preserved their character and their customs unchanged for several thousand years. Their most important occupation is cattle-breeding. Besides this, they follow the chase, or war upon their enemies, regarding as such all those not belonging to their race or who are not under their protection. They dwell in tents. Several families are under a Schech and several Schechs generally under an Emîr, who rules over the whole tribe.

The majority of these nomadic Arabs were Sabians, or Star-worshipers, before the adoption of Islam. History has preserved for us the names of several tribes who paid divine honors to single planets, or conspicuous fixed stars. No wonder that they should have fallen into such idolatry! The dust raised by the desert wind, which, as a rule, only blows during the day, and the heat of the sun compel them to pasture their herds and to undertake their hostile expeditions during the night. Leisure and necessity bid them gain information by directing their gaze at the starry sky, which is presented to them in a splendor of which we in our northern regions can scarcely form any idea. Since, therefore, the aborigines must have noticed at an early period that the nearly regular succession of changes in their climate took place in conformity with the annually recurring phenomena of the fixed stars, they ascribed to the latter a divine power. Thus originated the worship of the stars; and this once established, no other motives were needed to induce them to devote their constant attention to the starry skies. One result of this was that they applied proper names to the most conspicuous stars and groups of stars which were borrowed partly from the animal world around them, partly from their simple household effects, partly from various qualities and circumstances which they noticed in the stars. One tribe selected one name; another, another; and so it came to pass that one star, or group of stars, frequently bears more than one name. When, on the other hand, stars no less bright bear no names at all, the probable reason is that only fragments of the astronomical nomenclature of the Arab nomads have come down to us.

After this terminology had been transmitted by oral tradition, and especially by folk-songs, for hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years in its original condition, it was combined into an entirely heterogeneous mass—that variegated mixture which we find in the works of Kazwini, Ulug Bekh, and others.

When the Arabs in their fanatic zeal for the spread of Mohammed’s doctrines had conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and established in the heart of the ancient world a mighty empire, they adopted from the Greeks, with whom they had now come in contact, their astronomy among other sciences, and with it the Greek constellations and their method of distinguishing the stars according to their position in the figures.

Their astronomers now generally discriminated between the two classes of names in attributing the one to the Arabs, the other to the astronomers.

Abdelrahman Sufi, in the preface to his work on the constellations, says there are two kinds of heavens to become acquainted with—that of the astronomers and that of the Arabs. In the work itself he first describes the constellations used by the astronomers, i. e., the Greek ones, and then the old constellations of the Arabs. Kazwini in every case mentions a genuine Arabic star-name when he speaks of the Arabic, which is the case with almost every constellation.

Our early astronomers had very false notions of this relation of the nomadic heavens of the ancient Arabs to the mythological one of the Greeks adopted by their descendants. Schickard, in his Astroscopium, says: “Instead of the Dragon the Arabs depict two wolves and five dromedaries.” He means the two jackals and the family of camels which the nomads represented under the five stars on the head of the Dragon. The Arab astronomers drew the Greek dragon on their charts and globes just as we do. They only looked on the old jackals and camels as names for some of its stars. In Golius and Hyde we find a more correct view of the case.

FOOTNOTES:

Already in the ancient book of Job, whose hero has quite the characteristics of a Nomadic Emir, we find some astronomical terms whose analogy with the true Arabic star-names is unmistakable. See Job, ix. 9; xxxviii. 31, 32.

ASTRONOMY WITHOUT A TELESCOPE.—J. E. GORE

It must be remembered that astronomy was studied ages before the invention of the telescope, and that the ancient astronomers gained, without any optical assistance, a considerable amount of knowledge respecting the heavenly bodies.

Let us first consider the stars visible to the naked eye. The number of these down to the sixth magnitude—about the faintest that average eyesight can see—is, for both hemispheres, about 6,000. The number, therefore, visible at one time from any given place is about 3,000. Possibly double this number might be seen by those gifted with exceptionally keen eyesight; but even this is a comparatively small number, scattered as it is over so large an area. Those who do not possess the power of effective enumeration estimate the number visible to the naked eye as considerably greater than is really the case. This is partly due to the irregular distribution of the lucid stars over the celestial vault, and partly to the effect which the aspect of the starry sky produces on the imagination; the fact of the stars increasing in number as they diminish in brightness inducing us to suspect the presence of points of light which we do not actually see. An attempt to count those visible with certainty in any selected portion of the sky will, however, convince any intelligent person that the number, far from being large, is really very small, and that the idea, which some entertain, of a countless multitude is merely an optical illusion, and a popular fallacy which has no foundation in fact. Of course, the number visible in telescopes is very considerable. Perhaps with the largest telescopes 100,000,000 could be seen; but even this large number is very far from being “countless.” The present population of the earth is about 1,400,000,000, or about fourteen times the number of the visible stars!

The first thing to be done in studying the heavens with the naked eye is to learn the positions and names of the brighter stars; and from these the fainter ones may easily be identified by means of a star atlas. Those who study the stars in this way have probably a more intimate knowledge of the starry heavens than professional astronomers, who generally find the stars—at least the fainter ones—by referring to a catalogue of stars, and then setting their telescope to the place indicated by the figures given in the catalogue. Although the famous astronomer Sir William Herschel possessed several large telescopes, he also studied the stars with the naked eye, and it is related of this great observer that he could without hesitation identify any star he could see in this way by its name, letter, or number! Such an exhaustive knowledge of the heavens is, of course, very rare; but an acquaintance with all the brighter stars can easily be acquired by any person of ordinary intelligence.

The “Plow,” or Great Bear, is familiar to most people. This remarkable group of seven stars will be found very useful in identifying some of the brighter stars. The two stars furthest from the “tail” are called “pointers,” as they point nearly to the Pole Star, or star to which the axis of the earth nearly points. I say “nearly,” for the Pole Star is not exactly at the pole, but distant from it about three diameters of the moon. The northern of these stars is known to astronomers by the Greek letter Alpha and the southern as Beta. The others, following the order of the figure, are known by the letters Gamma, Delta (the faintest of the seven), Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta. Now, if the curve formed by the three stars in the tail, Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta, is continued on, it will pass near a very bright star. This is Arcturus (Alpha of the constellation Boötes), one of the brightest stars visible. Again, if we draw an imaginary line from Gamma to Beta, and produce it, it will pass near another bright star. This is Capella (Alpha of Auriga, “the Charioteer” referred to by Tennyson).

Again, if we draw a line from Delta to Beta, and produce it, it will pass near the tolerably bright stars, Castor and Pollux (Alpha and Beta of the constellation Gemini, or the Twins), the northern of the two being Castor. Another line from Delta to Gamma produced will pass near a bright star called Regulus (Alpha of Leo, the Lion). Another line from Beta to Eta will pass near a group called Corona Borealis, or the Northern Crown.

On the opposite side of the Pole Star from the Plow, a group of five conspicuous stars will be found, forming a figure shaped somewhat like a W. This is Cassiopeia’s Chair. Commencing with the most westerly of the five, these stars are known as Beta, Alpha, Gamma, Delta, and Eta. Like the stars of the Plow, those of Cassiopeia’s Chair may be used to find other stars. For instance, a line drawn from Beta to Alpha passes close to a star known as Gamma in Andromeda; and the same line produced in the opposite direction will pass a little north of the bright star Vega (Alpha Lyræ), one of the brightest stars in the northern heavens. A line from Gamma to Alpha produced will pass through the well-known “Square of Pegasus.”

To the east of Vega lies Cygnus, or the Swan, a well-known northern constellation. It may be recognized by the long cross formed by its principal stars, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon; Alpha, or Deneb, being the most northern and brightest, and Beta the most southern and faintest of the five.

To the southeast of Cassiopeia’s Chair lies the constellation Perseus, distinguished by its well-known festoon, or curve, of stars. South of this lies the constellation Taurus or the Bull, which contains the well-known groups or clusters, the Pleiades and the Hyades. The Pleiades form perhaps the most remarkable group of stars in the heavens, and are easily found, when above the horizon. To ordinary eyesight the cluster consists of six stars. Some persons gifted with exceptionally keen eyesight have, however, seen eleven or twelve. A map of the Pleiades made in the sixteenth century shows eleven stars very correctly. This was drawn, of course, from observations made with a measuring instrument, but without the aid of a telescope. The observer (I think it was Möstlin, Kepler’s tutor) must have possessed wonderfully sharp eyesight. The Hyades form a V-shaped figure, and contain the bright reddish star Aldebaran.

South of Taurus and Gemini will be found the splendid constellation of Orion, perhaps the most brilliant group of stars visible in either hemisphere. A remarkable quadrilateral figure is formed by its four stars, Betelgeuse (Alpha) and Gamma on the north, and Rigel (Beta) and Kappa on the south. Of these Betelgeuse and Rigel are bright stars of the first magnitude. Betelgeuse is distinctly reddish and also slightly variable in its light. Rigel is a beautiful white star. In the middle of the quadrilateral are three stars of the second magnitude, nearly in a straight line, known as Delta, Epsilon, and Zeta, Delta being the northern of the three. These form Orion’s “belt.” South of these are three faint stars, also in a straight line, forming the “sword” of Orion. Surrounding the central star of the “sword” is “the great nebula of Orion,” one of the finest objects in the heavens. It is barely visible to the naked eye, but may be seen with a good opera-glass.

To the southeast of Orion will be found Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens. It is the chief star of the constellation Canis Major, or the Great Dog, and has been well termed “the monarch of the skies,” from its great brilliancy.

The bright star Regulus, referred to above, is situated in a remarkable group of stars shaped like a sickle, and known as “the Sickle in Leo.” Regulus lies at the extremity of the handle. Leo is well placed for observation in April and May.

The famous group called the Southern Cross forms a conspicuous object in the southern heavens. It has formed a subject of interest since the earliest ages of antiquity. Its component stars, are, however, not so brilliant as some suppose, the two brightest being between the first and second magnitudes, the next of the second, and one between the third and fourth magnitudes. Near the Southern Cross are two bright stars known as Alpha and Beta of the Centaur.

Among the stars are many objects known as “double stars.” These consist of two stars very close together, but which appear to the naked eye only as single stars. Some are triple, and even quadruple. Of these double stars there are now about 10,000 known to astronomers, but they are only visible with a telescope. Some, indeed, are so close that the highest powers of the very largest telescopes are necessary to see them as anything but single stars. Of the naked-eye stars there are, however, some apparently so close that they present very much the appearance of real double stars as seen in a telescope. These, although not recognized by astronomers as double stars, have been termed “naked-eye doubles.” Houzeau found that the brighter the stars are the easier it is to separate them; and that for small stars, about 15′ of arc, or half the moon’s apparent diameter, is about the limit below which the naked eye can not see a faint star double.

Of the “naked-eye doubles,” perhaps the most remarkable is Mizar, the middle star in the “tail” of the Great Bear. Close to it is a small star, sometimes called “Jack on the Middle Horse.” It was known to the ancient astronomers as Alcor, or “the test,” as it was then considered a test of excellent eyesight. Whether it has really brightened seems doubtful, but at present it is perhaps visible to ordinary eyesight. Some, however, fail to see it, while to others with keener vision it seems as plain as the proverbial “pike-staff.” The star Alpha Capricorni consists of two stars which, although closer than Mizar and Alcor, are more equal in brightness, and may be easily seen with the naked eye on a clear night. Nu Sagittarii may also be seen double in this way. Theta Tauri, in the Hyades, is another object which some eyes can see distinctly double; also Kappa Tauri, a little to the north of the Hyades; Omicron Cygni, a little to the west of Alpha Cygni (Deneb), is another example. On a very fine night two stars may be seen in Iota Orionis, the most southern star in the “sword.” Near Gamma Leonis, one of the brightest stars in the “sickle,” is a star of the sixth magnitude, which some can see without optical aid.

The most severe test is, however, Epsilon Lyræ, the northern of two small stars which form a little triangle with the brilliant Vega. This, to some eyes, appears double. The famous German astronomer Bessel is said to have seen it at thirteen years of age. To most people, however, it will perhaps appear only elongated. This is a very remarkable star, as each of the components is seen to be a close double when examined with a good telescope; and between the pairs are several fainter stars.