BOOK V.. Sect. I.—on the Preservatives From Venomous Animals in General.

SECT. I.—ON THE PRESERVATIVES FROM VENOMOUS ANIMALS IN GENERAL.

In giving an account of animals which emit poisons we shall begin with some general remarks upon them, treating of the preservatives from them in the first place. If therefore a person be compelled to sleep in places infested by venomous animals, especially in such as salamanders, phalangia, or reptiles abound, it will be proper to shut up their holes under ground with garlic pounded in water, or some of the herbs about to be mentioned; and to fumigate with hartshorn, the hoofs or hairs of goats, gagate stone, bitumen, bdellium, galbanum, the shavings of the cypress or cedar, gith, hog’s fennel, the leaves of the chaste tree, calamint, sagapene, castor, the root of rosemary, fleabane, or some of the strong-scented things. Gnats in particular are driven away by fumigations with copperas, the seed of wild gith, and of cumin in equal proportions, and by cows’ dung. In addition to these, frequent fires should be lighted, for reptiles commonly flee from the light. A couch should be prepared by strewing asphodel, calamint, chaste tree, pennyroyal, poley, fleabane, and southernwood; or if it is not possible to make a couch entirely of these, they should at least be laid around the bed. Attention should be paid to such things as are to be boiled, to the water, and wine vessels that they be properly covered up. Fires for the purpose of cooking should not be lighted under particular trees, more especially pitch trees or pines, for salamanders and deadly caterpillars abound on them, which being warmed by the heat of the fire fall upon the victuals, or any other vessels which happen to be uncovered. Those who wish to be particularly guarded, anoint their bodies with a liquid cerate composed of wax, rose-oil, and a little galbanum, and with a little of the shavings of hart’s horn, or Ethiopian cumin. The leaves of mallows triturated with oil when rubbed on the skin protect in an especial manner from bees and wasps.

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COMMENTARY. The following is a list of the ancient authorities on Toxicology:

Nicander (Theriaca et Alexipharmaca); Dioscorides (Liber de Venenis); Celsus (v); Scribonius Largus (47, et seq.); Galen (Ther. ad Pison.; Meth. Med., De Antid.); Aëtius (xiii); Pliny (Hist. Nat. pluries); Oribasius (de Morb. Curat. iii); Solinus (Polyhist. 40); Serenus Samonicus; Nonnus; Simeon Seth (de Alimentis pluries); Actuarius (Meth. Med. v); Vegetius (de Mulo-medicina, iii, 77); Avicenna (iv, 6); Rhases (ad Mansor. viii, and Cont. xxxv); Haly Abbas (Pract. iv, Theor. viii); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx); Serapion (pluries); Anonymi (Fragmentum apud Bernardi Reliq.) The work of Ælius Promotus on Venomous Animals and Poisonous substances, which exists in MS. in the Bibliotheca Vaticana, has never been published as far as we know. It is quoted by Hieronymus Mercurialis (Var. lect), and is noticed by Albertus Fabricius (Bibl. Græc. xiii, 780.) Fabricius supposes it to be the production of Æschrion Empiricus. It is proper to state that whenever we quote the work, it is from the extracts given in Schneider’s Annotations on Nicander.

It is to be borne in mind that the work on Poisons, usually published as the production of Dioscorides, is not held to be genuine by his latest editor, Sprengel; still, however, it is acknowledged by all to be a work of considerable antiquity and of great authority on the subject of ancient Toxicology. The work ‘Euporistôn,’ which is also published with the works of Dioscorides, is generally admitted not to be genuine. It contains, however, some valuable matter on Toxicology and other medical subjects.

These directions of our author for driving away reptiles are mostly taken from Nicander, who recommends fumigations with hartshorn, gagate-stones, sulphur, bitumen, galbanum, juniper, and other such articles. (Ther. 35.) See also Dioscorides (M. M.); Orpheus (de Lapidibus); Geopon. (xiii, 8); and Nonnus (Epit. 261); also Aristot. (H. N. iv, 8); and Pliny (H. N. x, 90).

Virgil makes mention of this practice:

“Disce et odoratam stabulis accendere cedrum, Galbaneoque agitare graves nidore chelydros.”

Georg. iii, 314.

See a long list of substances used in fumigations for driving away serpents in Lucan. (Pharsal. ix, 916.) It is different from that of Nicander and our author. For example: it contains tamarix, costus, thapsos, &c. Arsenic occurs among the articles mentioned by Rhases. (Cont. xxxv.) It is also mentioned in the Geoponics (l. c.)

Nicander affirms, and it has been generally believed, that human saliva proves destructive to serpents. Galen says that it will kill the scorpion. Aristotle states, that it is destructive to most venomous reptiles. (H. A. viii, 28.) Redi maintains that this is an ancient error; but Andreas Laurentius declares that he knew from experience that the human saliva is destructive to serpents.

Nicander recommends a composition containing cedar-berries, fleabane, sage, and other such articles for preserving the body from venomous reptiles. Paxamus directs us to smear the face with a composition made of the roasted flour of fenugreek, with the juice of the wild mallows and oil. (Geopon. xv, 6.) He says it preserves the face from the stings of bees in particular.

The κώνωψ, here translated gnat, as it is in the English version of the scriptures, (Matt. xxiii, 24,) is proved by Bochart (Hierozoon. iii, 442); and by Harris (Nat. Hist. of the Bible), from Aristotle, Plutarch, and others, to mean properly a kind of insect that is bred in the lees of wine.

SECT. II.—THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF ALL PERSONS BITTEN OR STUNG BY ANY VENOMOUS ANIMAL.

If a person happen to be bitten or stung by any venomous animal he ought immediately to get the part sucked. The person who sucks it should not be fasting, and he ought first to rinse his mouth with wine and retain oil in it; and then, if the part admits, it should be cupped with much heat, scarifying also the surrounding parts; for the poison is forced back out of the body along with the spirits and blood which are drawn out. The part in which the wound is situated ought also to be burnt and eschars formed on it, and amputation of the extremities may then be seasonably practised if the animal that inflicted the bite be of a deadly nature, such as the asp, the cerastes, the viper, and the like: as Galen relates that a certain vine-dresser being bitten by a viper, and knowing the animal, immediately cut off the finger that was bitten with his pruning hook, and was entirely freed from the danger. But if the poison be already distributed over the body, venesection ought to be had recourse to immediately, especially if the person bitten be plethoric; and pepper and garlic given to eat with the food, and strong wine to drink, whereby the system will be filled with fresh vapours and a suitable heat. Afterwards cataplasms are to be applied that can warm and stimulate the bite, such as a mixture of the ashes of cabbage or of fig with vinegar, or with the strained lye, or with the sauce of pickle. Likewise onions may be mixed with polenta or bread, and strong leeks with salts, or warm liquid pitch with salts, or cedar-rosin, or goat’s dung. It will also be proper to pour upon the parts hot vinegar in which calamint has been boiled, or with vinegar and sea water, or with brine. We are to apply to the part fowls, more especially hens, cut up and still warm, or other such animals, for they absorb the poison and soothe the pains. And we must have recourse to plasters, such as that formed from salts, that from rosemary and adarce, and on the whole such things as are of an acrid nature. And in general all persons bitten or stung by any venomous animal ought, unless the deep-seated parts are wholly unhurt, to take in the first place potions containing endive, heath, or astragalus with vinegar, or bitumen and Christ’s thorn in like manner, or a decoction of Christ’s thorn; or two drachms of dried weasel with wine, which is a cried-up remedy; or the blood of the sea-tortoise, or a drachm of castor with diluted wine, or a drachm of frankincense, or of Sicyonian root, or the juice of leeks, or ground pine, or alsander, or cinnamon, or birthwort, or the seed of the chaste tree, or cypress balls, or seseli, or pepper, or the seed of trefoil, or bay berries, or river crabs roasted or boiled. Use the following compound theriac.

A theriac for venomous animals, and deleterious substances, and for persons bitten by vipers and scorpions. Of bryony, of opoponax, of Illyrian iris, of the root of rosemary, of ginger, of each, dr. iv; of birthwort, dr. v; of frankincense, of wild rue, of each, dr. iij; of the flour of tares, dr. ij; form trochisks with wine, and give three oboli with wine. Purging will also be proper for them, with sudorifics, and taking the theriac of vipers.

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COMMENTARY. These general directions are mostly taken from Dioscorides, who is greatly indebted to Nicander. Neither of them, however, makes mention of venesection among his remedies.

The remedial means recommended by Dioscorides are scarification, cupping, sucking, excision; and in extreme cases, amputation; clysters, and acrid applications to the part in order to clear out the venom; pure wine, must, or acrid substances to extinguish it and counteract its effects; and finally as adjuvants of these means, purging of the bowels, sweating, and some other particular remedies as stated under their proper heads.

The general remedies mentioned by Nicander are, sucking the wound, applying cupping instruments to it, and afterwards strong stimulants, hot irons, and leeches. He directs that the person who sucks it should not be fasting; from which it may be inferred that he had a correct idea that the vessels absorb most readily when in an empty state. This physiological doctrine was lately announced as a new discovery; but frequent allusions to it are to be met with in the works of Galen, our author, Avicenna, Avenzoar, Averrhoes, and Haly Abbas. The dangers resulting from an empty state of the vessels, whether produced by fasting or venesection, is well expressed by Gorræus in his Preliminary Dissertation on the Alexipharmics of Nicander: “Nec vero id tantum incommodi habet fames, sed in multo majus periculum adducit hominem, quando et venæ plurimum exinanitæ et cibum vehementer appetentes, venenum avidius ad se pertrahunt et in intima viscera, cordisque arcem immittunt.” “Quod si quis etiam abundare videatur, et nihil eorum repugnet quæ sunt in venæsectione observanda, sanguinem audacter mittamus, non quidem per initia (sic enim in venas deleteria traherentur, a quibus omni studio atque industriâ excludi debent) sed post vomitus alvique dejectiones,” &c.

Serapion, contrary to most of the authorities, recommends that the person who sucks a poisoned wound, should be in a fasting state; but as he is a servile copyist from his predecessors, it might be suspected that the text is in fault, if the same directions were not given by Rabbi Moyses, with this explanation: that a fasting person will perform this office with more risk to himself, but with greater advantage to the patient, than one who had taken food immediately beforehand. (De Venenis, i, 1.) All this shows how well the ancient savans were acquainted with the physiological fact, that the absorbent powers of the vessels is in the inverse ratio of their state of repletion.

Celsus recommends nearly the same general remedies as Nicander. Thus he directs us in the first place to apply a ligature round the limb, but not too tightly, for fear of occasioning torpor; and then to extract the poison by sucking, or by a cupping instrument along with scarifications. His local applications are of a hot stimulant nature. As internal remedies he recommends emetics, which may be supposed to expel the poison from the system by the concussion which they produce, and various articles of a calefacient nature, such as wine and pepper; because, says he, “maxima pars venenorum frigore interimit.”

Isidorus states in still more general terms that the poisons act by oppressing the vital heat. He says, “Omne autem venenum frigidum est, et ideo anima quæ ignea est, fugit venenum frigidum.” He states, likewise, that poisons do not act upon the system unless mixed with the blood: “Venenum autem dictum eo quod per venas vadit. Infusa enim pestis ejus per venas vegetatione aucta discurrit et animam extinguit. Unde non potest venenum nocere nisi hominis tetigerit sanguinem.” Lucanus: “Noxia serpentum est admixto sanguine pestis.”

This, however, is an imperfect account of the action of poisons, whether such as act by being introduced into the stomach, or those that prove deleterious when applied to a wound. Perhaps the classification given by Avicenna may be mentioned as the most complete of any proposed by the ancient authorities. He states that poisons act either by some certain quality, or by their whole substance. Of the former class some are corrosive and putrefactive, like the lepus marinus; some inflammatory and calefacient, like euphorbium; some frigorific and stupefying, like opium; some prove obstruent of the respiratory passages, like litharge; some act with their whole substance, as the wolf’s bane, and these are the most deleterious of all. Of these some act upon one member in particular, as cantharides upon the bladder, or the lepus marinus upon the lungs, and some upon the whole body as opium. (iv, 6, 1.) Schulze, in his ‘Toxicologia Veterum,’ has stated the ancient arrangement somewhat differently, and we are at a loss to think what authors he has followed. He says, the ancients arranged poisons according to their properties into the frigorific (ψυκτικὰ), corrosive (διαβιβρώσκυντα), and septic (σηπεδονώδη). The frigorific, he properly remarks, are those substances now called narcotics; to which class, as Galen mentions, the conium, poppy, henbane, and mandrake belong. On the action of narcotics, see