Part 39

The method of preparing milk for use by putting heated stones into it, is mentioned by Dioscorides, Pliny, and others. Serapion recommends heated iron. See the following Section. Galen was aware that milk coagulates in the stomach before it is digested. (De Al. Fac. iii, 15.)

SECT. LXXXVIII.—ON CURDS AND WHEY.

By powerful boiling at a strong fire without smoke, the serous part of the milk is separated from the caseous, and is then strained through a sieve or piece of rag carefully, and to the serous part is added a moderate quantity of honey, or of vinegar and honey, or salts; and it is given to evacuate the bowels in the quantity of two sextarii to adults, and to younger persons not less than a sextarius. And milk thickened by ignited pebbles or iron may be given with advantage for dysenteries and alvine discharges.

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COMMENTARY. The method of preparing the schiston is thus described by Pliny: “Medici speciem unam addidere lactis generibus, quod schiston appellavere. Id fit hoc modo: fictili novo fervet caprinum maxime, ramisque ficulneis recentibus miscetur, additis totidem cyathis mulsi, quot sint heminæ lactis. Cum fervet, ne circumfundatur, præstat cyathus argenteus cum frigida aqua demissus ita ne quid infundat: ablatum deinde igni refrigeratione dividitur et discedit serum a lacte.” (Hist. Nat. xxviii, 33.) The same process is briefly described by Dioscorides (ii, 77.) Pliny recommends the whey thus prepared for epilepsy, melancholy, paralysis, leprosy, elephantiasis, and arthritis. This preparation of milk is often noticed by the ancient authors on medicine. It evidently consisted of the whey of the milk, separated from the cheese by a peculiar process.

The melca was a preparation from milk, and is mentioned by our author in the Fourth Book § 27. It also appears to have been a sort of curds and whey, or du lait caillé of the French, prepared by pouring hot vinegar upon milk. The process is minutely described in the Geoponics (xviii.)

The oxygal, or lac acidum, consisted of the caseous part of the milk, separated from the whey by a very complicated process, which is fully described by Columella. (xii, 8.) It is said by Galen to possess very refrigerant properties.

The aphrogala, or spuma lactis, appears to have been milk reduced to a state of foam by violent agitation.

SECT. LXXXIX.—ON CHEESE.

All cheese is acrid, occasions thirst, is difficult to digest, forms bad chyme, and engenders stones. That is best which is new, spongy, soft, sweet, and has a moderate share of salt. The opposite kind is the worst.

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COMMENTARY. Hippocrates calls cheese flatulent and indigestible. Celsus also calls it flatulent, and ranks old cheese among the unwholesome articles of food. He speaks favorably, however, of soft new-made cheese. Dioscorides, in like manner, says that new-made cheese without salt is nutritious, good for the stomach, of easy distribution, forms flesh, and is moderately laxative. Old cheese, he adds, is constipating. Pliny describes the kinds in most repute when he lived. (Hist. Nat. xi, 97.) He says that salted cheese wastes the body, but that soft is nutritious, (xxviii, 34.) Varro, in like manner, says that soft and recent cheese is nourishing, and not astringent, but that the old and dry is the contrary. (De R. R. ii, 11.) The spongy cheese prepared from the first milk of a goat was reckoned very delicious. It was called colostrum. (Martial, Epigr. xiii, 33.)

Galen’s account of the nature and properties of cheese is so ample that our limits will not admit of doing justice to it in our brief abstract. (De Alim. iii, 17.) He remarks that milk, when it is converted into cheese, loses its watery part, and acquires heating properties, whence it becomes more apt to excite thirst, more indigestible, and unwholesome. He speaks most favorably of new-made cheese, and mentions that there was a kind much used by rich Romans, called Vatusicus, which was peculiarly excellent. As to consistence, the best cheese, he remarks, should be intermediate between the glutinous and the friable, and it ought to possess no distinct quality as to taste, unless, perhaps, a certain degree of sweetness. Aëtius, Oribasius, and Simeon Seth evidently adopt the views of Galen. Seth says that new cheese is laxative, and old astringent.

The Arabians deliver the same characters of cheese as their Grecian masters. Avicenna, Averrhoes, and Haly Abbas speak favorably of new cheese, as being of a cold and humid nature.

Hippocrates mentions a species of cheese prepared by the Scythians, from mares’ milk, and called by them hippace. (De Aer.) The same is noticed by Theophrastus (Hist. Pl. ix), and by Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxv, 44.) Cheese variously prepared and served up was esteemed a great delicacy by the gourmands. See Athenæus (ix, 14.) It was taken towards the conclusion of a feast. (Id. xv, 22.)

SECT. XC.—ON FISHES.

That all fishes are of a colder and more humid temperament is obvious. Those that are found among rocks are the best of all, being of easy digestion, furnishing good juices, and being moderately moistening when their flesh is not hard. Of those that do not abide among rocks, those that abide in the sea are much better than those that dwell among mud, or where rivers meet the sea. But still worse are those which are found in marshes and stagnant parts of the sea. In particular, the mullet (capito) being a sea fish, is moderately sweet, not very indigestible, and furnishes good chyme; but the blood formed from it is thin and weak. So it is also with the bass (lupus). The surmullet, as being a sea fish, is harder than the others, friable, digestible, nutritive, sweet, and free of fat.

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COMMENTARY. Ancient authors make mention of whole nations of mankind that subsisted entirely upon fish. For an account of the Ichthyophagi, see Herodotus (iii, 20); Pliny (xi); Strabo (Geogr. xv); Diodorus Siculus (iv, 15); Ptolemæus (Geogr. iv); Arrianus (in Indicis); Solinus (Polyhistor, lxv); Philostratus (in Vita Apollonii, iii.) The description given of them by Diodorus is the most circumstantial and interesting. He says that the simplicity of their diet preserved them free from diseases, but that they were short-lived. A very interesting, and seemingly a very authentic account of the fish-eaters on the borders of the Red Sea is also given by Agatharcides. (Ap. Photium.) Pliny states that fish was used by his countrymen as food from the building of the city. (Hist. Nat. xxxii, 10.) Eustathius says that, in the heroic ages, it was seldom used but in cases of want. (Ad Iliad. v, 487.) It would appear that fish was generally high priced in Greece. See Athen. (vi, 12, ed. Schweigh.) In the luxurious days of the Romans, the rage for fishes esteemed as rare was excessive. See Horace, Juvenal, and Martial (pluries.)

Hippocrates thus details the dietetical qualities of fish. Speaking generally, then, he says fishes are light food, both when boiled and roasted, by themselves or with other things. They differ from one another as follows: Those which live in lakes, the fat, and river fishes, are heavier; of sea fish, such as are found near the shore are lighter, and those which are well boiled are lighter than such as are roasted. The stronger kind, therefore, are to be given when our object is to recruit, but the lighter when we wish to attenuate or reduce. (De Affect. 46.)

Celsus ranks fish among those things which hold an intermediate place between articles of a strong and of a weak nature. He thus distinguishes them from one another: “Levior piscis inter saxa editus, quam in arenâ, levior in arenâ, quam in limo: quo fit ut ex stagno, vel lacu, vel flumine eadem genera graviora sint: leviorque, qui in alto, quam qui in vado vixit.”

Plutarch states that fish is much more easily digested than flesh. (Sympos. iv.)

For a full, interesting, and judicious account of the qualities of fishes as articles of food, see Athenæus (Deipnos. viii.) We can only afford room to mention his opinion of their more general properties. He says, then, upon the authority of the Siphnian Diphilus, that of sea fishes those that live among rocks are of easy digestion, contain good juices, are detergent, light, and afford little nourishment; and that those which inhabit the depths of the sea are difficult to digest, very nutritious, and of difficult assimilation.

Galen states that fishes which live in marshes, lakes, and muddy rivers, are the worst as articles of food, because they are little exercised in swimming, and have impure food. Such fishes as live in the depths of the sea, he says, are almost free from fault as aliment, for they are more wholesome and delicious than any of the others. He mentions, as the characteristics of good fish, that they have no offensive taste or smell, have little fat, and can be kept for a considerable time without becoming putrid, especially if put in ice. He says that fish is the best possible food to persons of indolent habits, old men, and invalids, but that it does not answer so well with persons who take strong exercise.

Of fishes, as aliments, there is an excellent account in a Fragment of Xenocrates, published a few years ago, with interesting notes, by the learned Dr. Coray, of Paris. He says that roasted fishes are most nutritious, but are of difficult evacuation; that the boiled are less nutritious, but are readily evacuated; that sea fishes are savoury, agree with the stomach, are of easy distribution, form proper blood, impart a good colour, and clear the bowels. Such as live in rivers and lakes, he adds, are bad for the stomach, form thick juices, and are of difficult evacuation. The characters of the different fishes are afterwards stated by him very fully. He says that the parts next to the tail, as being most exercised, are most wholesome.

Oribasius’s account of fishes is mostly taken from Xenocrates. Aëtius is full and correct on this subject. He says that the best fishes are those which live in a sea of pure water, especially if it be agitated by winds, and if its shores be sandy, and not clayey.

Actuarius says, that of fishes which live at the sea-shore, and among the rocks, the larger supply much nourishment, of a thick nature; and the smaller, little nourishment, of a pure nature. He says, further, that sea fishes in general, being preferable to those which live in fresh waters, differ however from one another in several respects; that such as live in the open sea are more exercised, and enjoy purer food, than the others, and hence their flesh is firmer and purer, and they are more nutritious, and form thick blood; that such as live in canals and marshes are bad and unwholesome; and that those which live among rocks in pure waters have better flesh, and, being light and digestible, form thin and pure blood.

Simeon copies freely from Galen and our author. Upon the whole, he says, the blood which fishes form is thinner than that from land animals. Fish, he says, is the most proper food of invalids and convalescents.