The Principles of Psychology, Volume 1 (of 2)

CHAPTER IX.. The Stream of Thought, 224

THE STREAM OF THOUGHT, 224

Consciousness tends to the personal form. It is in constant change. It is sensibly continuous. 'Substantive' and 'transitive' parts of Consciousness. Feelings of relation. Feelings of tendency. The 'fringe' of the object. The feeling of rational sequence. Thought possible in any kind of mental material. Thought and language. Consciousness is cognitive. The word Object. Every cognition is due to one integral pulse of thought. Diagrams of Thought's stream. Thought is always selective.

CHAPTER X.. The Consciousness of Self

THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF SELF

The Empirical Self or Me. Its constituents. The material self. The Social Self. The Spiritual Self. Difficulty of apprehending Thought as a purely spiritual activity. Emotions of Self. Rivalry and conflict of one's different selves. Their hierarchy. What Self we love in 'Self-love'. The Pure Ego. The verifiable ground of the sense of personal identity. The passing Thought is the only Thinker which Psychology requires. Theories of Self-consciousness: 1) The theory of the Soul. 2) The Associationist theory. 3) The Transcendentalist theory. The mutations of the Self. Insane delusions. Alternating selves. Mediumships or possessions. Summary.

CHAPTER XI.. Attention

ATTENTION

Its neglect by English psychologists. Description of it. To how many things can we attend at once? Wundt's experiments on displacement of date of impressions simultaneously attended to. Personal equation. The varieties of attention. Passive attention. Voluntary attention. Attention's effects on sensation;--on discrimination;--on recollection;--on reaction-time. The neural process in attention: 1) Accommodation of sense-organ. 2) Preperception. Is voluntary attention a resultant or a force? The effort to attend can be conceived as a resultant. Conclusion. Acquired Inattention.

CHAPTER XII.. Conception

CONCEPTION

The sense of sameness. Conception defined. Conceptions are unchangeable. Abstract ideas, 468. Universals. The conception 'of the same' is not the 'same state' of mind.

CHAPTER XIII.. Discrimination and Comparison

DISCRIMINATION AND COMPARISON

Locke on discrimination. Martineau ditto. Simultaneous sensations originally fuse into one object. The principle of mediate comparison. Not all differences are differences of composition. The conditions of discrimination. The sensation of difference. The transcendentalist theory of the perception of differences uncalled for. The process of analysis. The process of abstraction. The improvement of discrimination by practice. Its two causes. Practical interests limit our discrimination. Reaction-time after discrimination. The perception of likeness, 528. The magnitude of differences. The measurement of discriminative sensibility: Weber's law. Fechner's interpretation of this as the psycho-physic law. Criticism thereof.

CHAPTER XIV.. Association

ASSOCIATION

The problem of the connection of our thoughts. It depends on mechanical conditions. Association is of objects thought of, not of 'ideas'. The rapidity of association. The 'law of contiguity'. The elementary law of association. Impartial redintegration. Ordinary or mixed association. The law of interest. Association by similarity. Elementary expression of the difference between the three kinds of association. Association in voluntary thought. Similarity no elementary law. History of the doctrine of association.

CHAPTER XV.. The Perception of Time, 605

THE PERCEPTION OF TIME, 605

The sensible present. Its duration is the primitive time-perception. Accuracy of our estimate of short durations. We have no sense for empty time. Variations of our time-estimate. The feeling of past time is a present feeling. Its cerebral process.

CHAPTER XVI.. Memory

MEMORY

Primary memory. Analysis of the phenomenon of memory. Retention and reproduction are both caused by paths of association in the brain. The conditions of goodness in memory. Native retentiveness is unchangeable. All improvement of memory consists in better thinking. Other conditions of good memory. Recognition, or the sense of familiarity. Exact measurements of memory. Forgetting. Pathological cases. Professor Ladd criticised.

INDEX.

PSYCHOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.. The Scope of Psychology.

THE SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY.

Psychology is the Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and of their conditions. The phenomena are such things as we call feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, decisions, and the like; and, superficially considered, their variety and complexity is such as to leave a chaotic impression on the observer. The most natural and consequently the earliest way of unifying the material was, first, to classify it as well as might be, and, secondly, to affiliate the diverse mental modes thus found, upon a simple entity, the personal Soul, of which they are taken to be so many facultative manifestations. Now, for instance, the Soul manifests its faculty of Memory, now of Reasoning, now of Volition, or again its Imagination or its Appetite. This is the orthodox 'spiritualistic' theory of scholasticism and of common-sense. Another and a less obvious way of unifying the chaos is to seek common elements in the divers mental facts rather than a common agent behind them, and to explain them constructively by the various forms of arrangement of these elements, as one explains houses by stones and bricks. The 'associationist' schools of Herbart in Germany, and of Hume the Mills and Bain in Britain have thus constructed a psychology without a soul by taking discrete 'ideas,' faint or vivid, and showing how, by their cohesions, repulsions, and forms of succession, such things as reminiscences, perceptions, emotions, volitions, passions, theories, and all the other furnishings of an individual's mind may be engendered. The very Self or ego of the individual comes in this way to be viewed no longer as the pre-existing source of the representations, but rather as their last and most complicated fruit.

Now, if we strive rigorously to simplify the phenomena in either of these ways, we soon become aware of inadequacies in our method. Any particular cognition, for example, or recollection, is accounted for on the soul-theory by being referred to the spiritual faculties of Cognition or of Memory. These faculties themselves are thought of as absolute properties of the soul; that is, to take the case of memory, no reason is given why we should remember a fact as it happened, except that so to remember it constitutes the essence of our Recollective Power. We may, as spiritualists, try to explain our memory's failures and blunders by secondary causes. But its successes can invoke no factors save the existence of certain objective things to be remembered on the one hand, and of our faculty of memory on the other. When, for instance, I recall my graduation-day, and drag all its incidents and emotions up from death's dateless night, no mechanical cause can explain this process, nor can any analysis reduce it to lower terms or make its nature seem other than an ultimate datum, which, whether we rebel or not at its mysteriousness, must simply be taken for granted if we are to psychologize at all. However the associationist may represent the present ideas as thronging and arranging themselves, still, the spiritualist insists, he has in the end to admit that something, be it brain, be it 'ideas,' be it 'association,' knows past time as past, and fills it out with this or that event. And when the spiritualist calls memory an 'irreducible faculty,' he says no more than this admission of the associationist already grants.

And yet the admission is far from being a satisfactory simplification of the concrete facts. For why should this absolute god-given Faculty retain so much better the events of yesterday than those of last year, and, best of all, those of an hour ago? Why, again, in old age should its grasp of childhood's events seem firmest? Why should illness and exhaustion enfeeble it? Why should repeating an experience strengthen our recollection of it? Why should drugs, fevers, asphyxia, and excitement resuscitate things long since forgotten? If we content ourselves with merely affirming that the faculty of memory is so peculiarly constituted by nature as to exhibit just these oddities, we seem little the better for having invoked it, for our explanation becomes as complicated as that of the crude facts with which we started. Moreover there is something grotesque and irrational in the supposition that the soul is equipped with elementary powers of such an ingeniously intricate sort. Why should our memory cling more easily to the near than the remote? Why should it lose its grasp of proper sooner than of abstract names? Such peculiarities seem quite fantastic; and might, for aught we can see a priori, be the precise opposites of what they are. Evidently, then, the faculty does not exist absolutely, but works under conditions; and the quest of the conditions becomes the psychologist's most interesting task.

However firmly he may hold to the soul and her remembering faculty, he must acknowledge that she never exerts the latter without a cue, and that something must always precede and remind us of whatever we are to recollect. "An idea," says the associationist, "an idea associated with the remembered thing; and this explains also why things repeatedly met with are more easily recollected, for their associates on the various occasions furnish so many distinct avenues of recall." But this does not explain the effects of fever, exhaustion, hypnotism, old age, and the like. And in general, the pure associationist's account of our mental life is almost as bewildering as that of the pure spiritualist. This multitude of ideas, existing absolutely, yet clinging together, and weaving an endless carpet of themselves, like dominoes in ceaseless change, or the bits of glass in a kaleidoscope,--whence do they get their fantastic laws of clinging, and why do they cling in just the shapes they do?

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