The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History of Europe

CHAPTER I

ILLUSTRATIONS OF BELIEF IN MAGIC IN MEDIÆVAL AND IN EARLY MODERN TIMES PAGE General belief in witchcraft, in astrology, and in the existence of magicians 11 Even the most educated men believed in astrology 12 Further illustration of such beliefs among men of learning, and even among scientists 13 Isidore and Bede 14 Alexander of Neckam 15 Michael Scot 16 Roger Bacon 18 Bacon’s acceptance of astrology 18 Bacon’s belief in occult influence 19 Vincent de Beauvais, Bernard Gordon, Albertus Magnus, Arnald of Villanova 19 Cabalistic doctrines of Renaissance scholars 20 Jerome Cardan 22 Paracelsus and Tycho Brahe 22 Francis Bacon 23 Summary of these beliefs 23 Question whether they are all closely connected 24 Question whether they were regarded by their authors as magic 25 Importance of magic 26

CHAPTER II. Magic; Its Origins, and Relations to Science

MAGIC; ITS ORIGINS, AND RELATIONS TO SCIENCE

Magic once regarded as a reality 27 Magic præternatural rather than supernatural 27 Belief in magic perhaps older than belief in divine beings 28 Magic not originally a secret art 28 Attitude of primitive man towards nature 29 His effort to explain strange phenomena 30 His belief in lucky things 31 His desire to know the future 31 Hence the probable origin of belief in magic 31 Chief characteristics of magic 32 Difficulty in defining magic 33 Gradual disappearance of magic before science 34 Possible union of magic and science 34 Importance of union of magic and science 35 Method of treating that theme in this essay 36

CHAPTER III. Pliny’s Natural History

PLINY’S NATURAL HISTORY

A fitting starting-point for our discussion 37

I. The Character of the Work: Its extensive treatment of both science and magic 37 Objections to regarding it as a true picture of ancient science 38 Reasons for so regarding it 39 Pliny the Boswell of ancient science 40 Pliny’s relation to mediæval science 41

II. Pliny’s Discussion of Magic: Its significance 41 Pliny’s remarks concerning the history of magic 42 “Magic” false, according to Pliny 42 “Magic” an obscene and criminal art, according to Pliny 44

III. Illustrations of Pliny’s Fundamental Belief in Magic: Inconsistency of his declared scepticism 44 His belief that animals possess magic properties 45 His belief that plants have similar occult virtues 45 Strange qualities of minerals 46 Magical powers of man 47 Efficacy of magical ceremonial 48 Pliny’s belief unmistakable 49 Though probably limited 49 Question as to extent of his belief in astrology 50 His account of the heavenly bodies 50 Influence of the stars upon our planet 51 Influence of the stars upon man 52 Belief of Pliny in portents 53 Attitude of Pliny towards various popular superstitious observances 53 Pliny not esoteric 54 Conclusions to be drawn from the Natural History 54

CHAPTER IV. Some Antecedents of the Belief in Magic in the Roman Empire

SOME ANTECEDENTS OF THE BELIEF IN MAGIC IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Derivative and cosmopolitan character of intellectual life during the imperial period 56 Extent of our discussion of its antecedents 56 Question as to freedom of Greek thought from magic 57 Some evidence to the contrary 57 Doctrines of the Stoics favorable to magic 59 Pythagorean theory of numbers 59 Attitude of Plato towards “magic,” as he understood the word 60 Plato’s fantastic view of nature 60 Aristotle’s acceptance of astrology 61 Aristotle’s History of Animals 62 Cato’s De Re Rustica 63

CHAPTER V. Belief in Magic in the Empire

BELIEF IN MAGIC IN THE EMPIRE

Outline of contents of this chapter 65

I. General Attitude: Prejudice against “magic” and condemnation of Magi 65 Views of Apuleius and of Philostratus 66 In reality a widespread belief in magic 67 Explanation of apparent opposition to astrology 68 Galen 69 Neo-Platonism 70 Philosophy confounded with magic 71

II. Philo of Alexandria and Allegorical Interpretation: Question as to connection of allegorical interpretation with magic 72 Historical importance of allegorical interpretation and of Philo 73 Nature of Philo’s allegorical interpretation 73 His influence in the Middle Ages 75

III. Seneca’s Problems of Nature and Divination: Scientific traits of Seneca 75 His tendency to be esoteric and mystical 76 Ground covered by his book 77 His partial rejection of magic 77 His acceptance of divination 78 His discussion of divination from thunder 79

IV. Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos and Astrology: An illustration of the astrology of the scientist 80 Ptolemy and his influence 80 Scientific tone of the preliminary remarks in the Tetrabiblos 81 An attempt to base astrology upon natural law 82 Ptolemy’s explanation of the influence of the planets 82 Summary of remaining contents of his first book 83 Contents of the other three books 83

V. The Hermetic Books and Occultism: Their nature and history, legendary and actual 84 Their contents 86 Their importance 87

CHAPTER VI. Critics of Magic

CRITICS OF MAGIC

Review of the usual attitude towards magic in the Roman Empire 88

I. Opponents of Astrology: Cicero, Favorinus and Sextus Empiricus 89 Considerations which discount their scepticism 89 Inadequacy of their arguments 90 Astrology attacked as being impracticable 91 General problem of sidereal influence left untouched 92

II. Cicero’s Attack upon Divination: In a way an attack upon magic as a whole 93 Form and arrangement of De Divinatione 94 Its relations to the past and to the future 94 Appeal of Quintus to antiquity and to tradition 94 Cicero’s reply; condemnation of reliance on tradition 95 Divination declared quite distinct from science 95 Divination declared quite contrary to the laws of science 96 Idea of magical sympathy rejected 97 Cicero’s attitude very unusual for his time 98 Question as to his consistency 98

CHAPTER VII. The Last Century of the Empire

THE LAST CENTURY OF THE EMPIRE

Intellectual characteristics of the period 99 Marcellus of Bordeaux 99 Ammianus Marcellinus 99 His description of the state of learning at Alexandria 100 His justification of divination as a science 101 His extraordinary misquoting of Cicero 102 Synesius 103 His belief that all parts of the universe are in magic sympathy 103 Further instances of his trust in magic 104 Macrobius 106

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSION 108

ERRATA

Page 21, line 19, instead of verbe read verbo. Page 49, lines 9 and 10, instead of marvelour read marvelous. Page 58, at close of first foot-note, instead of 66 read 67. Page 71, line 10 of foot-note, instead of άλλὰ read ἀλλὰ. Page 101, line 8 of foot-note, instead of factorum read fatorum. Page 105, line 2 of second foot-note, instead of εἷναι read εἶναι.

CHAPTER I

ILLUSTRATIONS OF BELIEF IN MAGIC IN MEDIÆVAL AND IN EARLY MODERN TIMES

Even a slight acquaintance with European history reveals the existence of a number of curious and apparently unreasonable beliefs prevalent throughout a period extending from early mediæval to comparatively recent times. There is the belief in witchcraft, for instance. From the canons of synods in the early Middle Ages down to the pitiless executions during the witchcraft delusion, there is abundant evidence of its prominence. It played its part not only in humble life, but in court intrigues and in the accusations brought at state trials.

The belief that one’s future could be learned by observing the stars was equally widespread. Astrologers throve at the courts of kings, and sometimes their advice was taken even by him whose every act was held to be under special divine direction. It would be a great mistake to think that the astrologer was maintained merely for the amusement of king and court, like the jester. His utterances were taken most seriously, and the principles of his art were so generally accepted as to become the commonplaces of the thought and the conversation of daily life. In 1305, for instance, when certain cardinals urged Pope Clement V to return to Rome, they reminded him that every planet was most powerful in its own house. Indeed, even in our speech to-day numerous vestiges of the astrological art survive.

Moreover, a grander and more imposing witchcraft displayed itself in the stories of the wizard Merlin and in the persons of the wicked magicians with whom knights contended in the pages of mediæval romance. So strong was the tendency to believe in the marvelous, that men of learning were often pictured by subsequent tradition, if not by contemporary gossip, as mighty necromancers. Even Gerbert, who seems to have done nothing more shocking than to write a treatise on the abacus and build a pipe-organ, was pictured as running off with a magician’s book and daughter, hanging under bridges between earth and water to escape noxious spells, and making compacts with Satan.

The attitude of the average mind as it has just been illustrated was to a large extent characteristic of the best instructed and most widely read men. The erudite poet Dante accepted the influence of the constellations upon human destiny. Bodin maintained in his Republic—perhaps the greatest book on political science written during the sixteenth century—that astrology was very useful in tracing the development of society. Aquinas, chief of the mediæval theologians, accepted astrological theory, except as limited by human free will, and further admitted that most men make little use of their liberty of action but blindly follow their passions, which are governed by the stars. Among other great mediæval churchmen and canonists, d’Ailly and Gerson both believed that God signified important events in advance through the stars, and d’Ailly made some astrological predictions himself. Astrology was much taught in the mediæval universities, and was regarded as the climax of mathematics and as an essential part of medicine.

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