Part 4

Kant is first concerned to ask where these a priori concepts come from, and how many of them there are. This inquiry he calls the metaphysical deduction of the categories. Having answered that question, he then goes on to ask by what right we assume these principles in our dealing with experience. This, the most important and difficult section of the Critique, he calls the transcendental deduction of the categories.

Most concepts, as we saw, are empirical. We take certain likenesses and differences we observe as the mark of a real unity in the things. The different natures of different things we do not fully know, but we distinguish them by the different uniformities we observe, and in order to explain our experience we assume the unity underlying these perceived likenesses. Iron, dog, fire, are names for the natures of things which we see manifested in our experience. The concept, then, is got from what we perceive, though it stands for something more than we perceive. How, then, can there be any concepts which are not got from the empirical differences of things we perceive? Let us take such a concept as substance, and see whether we can discover where it comes from. Locke had been puzzled by discovering that he could not, in any object, find anything which was its substantiality. Calling anything a substance is not like saying that it is hard, or green, or heavy; we are not concerned with specific differences in things, but we are not therefore saying what is meaningless. There is something, namely substance, which we can distinguish from the hardness, or colour, or weight that we perceive. That something we do not perceive; we assume it whenever we talk of a thing being hard, and green, and heavy. A thing's substantiality is just the unity of its perceivable qualities. But such a unity is implied in the concept of any object. Substance, then, is a name for one of the general principles implied in our assuming that what we perceive are real objects.

Kant generalises the result of this inquiry into particular concepts of this kind. He holds that a priori concepts or categories (i.e. the concepts which we do not get from empirical differences of things) stand for principles implied in thinking of things as objects or in judging. If we want, therefore, to find out the number of the categories, we must ask how many different kinds of unity are implied in judgment, or what are the conditions of judging any object. Kant does not here help, but rather misleads us in this inquiry. For he unfortunately thought that the different kinds of judgment could be discovered without further ado by taking the list given in formal logic. He therefore first makes a list of categories, based on the logical forms of judgment, and then tries to show the connection between these categories and the principles which were, as he had discovered, assumed in the mathematical sciences.

The actual movement of his thought is, I think, different. He asks if there are any general conditions implied in all judgment. His answer is that all judgments, all statements, that is, which claim to be true, imply determination of time and space. From that determination certain principles can be deduced. If time and space are implied in all judging, then these principles will equally be implied, and will hold of all things which can be objects for us.

It will be easier to understand Kant's arguments if we invert the order of the Critique and begin with examining the nature of the principles of the understanding or of one of them.

The categories which are of importance in Kant's argument are quantity, quality, substance, causation, and reciprocity, and necessity, possibility, and actuality. The last three are less important than the others, and we shall not deal with them.

To the first five of these categories correspond the following principles:

(1) Quantity. "All phenomena are, with reference to their perception, extensive quantities."

(2) Quality. "In all phenomena the real, which is the object of a sensation, has intensive quantity, that is, a degree."

The last three are classed under a general heading of Analogies of Experience, whose principle is: "Experience is possible only through the representation of a necessary connection of perceptions." They are

(3) The principle of the permanence of substance. "In all changes of phenomena the substance is permanent, and its quantum is neither increased nor diminished in nature."

(4) Principle of the succession of time, according to the Law of Causality. "All changes take place according to the law of connection between cause and effect."

(5) Principle of co-existence, according to the law of reciprocity or community. "All substances, so far as they can be perceived as co-existent in space, are always affecting each other reciprocally."

These principles, Kant points out, are assumed in the sciences of applied mathematics. The application of geometry to the world we experience assumes that all phenomena are extensive quantities; physics assumes that quantitative expression can be given to the qualities of objects other than their size, their weight, e.g., and all scientific determination of change assumes the three principles which Kant calls analogies of experience: the permanence or conservation of amount in changes, the necessary connection of things in time, and the reciprocal interdependence of things which exist at the same time. These principles are not proved by science; their validity is assumed in all scientific investigation. On what, then, does it rest?

We shall follow Kant's argument more easily if we take his account of one of these principles--the principle of causation. For what is said of that will hold, with necessary changes, of the others, and, as we have noticed, it was Hume's criticism of causation which first led Kant to formulate the critical problem. Hume had pointed out that we had never such insight into causal connection as to be able, from mere inspection of a cause, to foretell the effect without any reference to experience. He declared, on the contrary, that there was no difference between observed succession and causation so far as concerned the objects observed. In each case we see first one thing and then another. The difference, then, between mere succession and causal connection can only be in us, in the way we come to feel about certain successions we observe. In technical language, the necessity of causation is subjective.

How does Kant answer this position? He begins, as is usual with him, by taking the problem a little further back. Causation is a connection we predicate between what we see at one time, and what we see at another. Now if we take into account only the fact that we see one thing at one time and another thing at another, there is no difference between what we see when we successively see two things which we judge to co-exist, and when we see two things one of which we judge to have succeeded the other in time. Hume, therefore, proved too much. His argument would show that we have no grounds for distinguishing between apprehension of succession and succession in apprehending, but such a distinction is the basis of our apprehension and understanding of change or movement. If, then, we examine how we distinguish between apprehension of succession and succession in apprehending, we may see on what the principle of causation is based.

An instance will help to make this point clear. Suppose that I am sitting in a room, and look first at the door and then turn round and look at the window. There are two successive acts of apprehending; the content of the first is the door, of the second, the window, but the succession, I say, is in my apprehending. The door and the window have co-existed all the time. Suppose, again, that I look out of the window and see a cab in front of the house opposite, come back into the room, and then look out again and see the cab in front of a house further down. Here, again, are two successive acts of apprehending, the content of the first houses with cab in front of one house, of the second houses with cab in front of another. This time I say the houses have gone on co-existing, but the cab has moved. The difference in what I see this time is due not to me, but to the cab. The succession is in the thing apprehended. If we just think of the contents apprehended, we have first A, then B, and say A and B co-exist in the first instance, and have CD and CE, and say D and E have been successive in the other. Why in the second case do we not say when we look out of the window the second time: Here is another row of houses, which, though they look exactly the same as the ones I saw last time, have got the cab in a different place? That is the land of thing one does say in a dream. Why would it be inadmissible in waking life?

Let us first ask how we ever come to make the distinction between change in the content of our perception, which is due to change in us, and change in the things we perceive. Look out of a window into a busy street. As we look certain things remain the same, the houses opposite, the lamp-posts, and so on, but other things change. The permanence of part of the contents guarantees us that the change we perceive is not due to us: if it were, these would change also. Therefore it must be in certain of the things. Change is perceived against a background that is permanent and does not change. But any such particular perception is, of course, very limited. We do not see all the world at once, and we only come to know a larger extent of reality by means of memory, which enables us to put together what we see at one time with what we see at another. We have got to try and understand how it is that we make this distinction, which is clear to us in small isolated bits of experience, hold of all experience. Now if reality did not change, and we were conscious of our own movements, we could go from one point to another of reality and back again, and could be aware that the changes in our perception were all due, not to change in reality, but to us--were our history. We should know that the different things we saw were co-existing all the time, and we should, in describing them, try to describe them, as in a map, as we should perceive them if we saw them all at once. The succession would be subjective, the co-existence objective. If we perceived nothing but change, we should be incapable of distinguishing between our changes and the change outside us, for all succession in our experiencing would be experience of what was successive, and there could be no distinction between psychology and science. Our experience of reality is not like either of these suppositions, but like both of them combined. Some succession of our experiencing is experience of the co-existing, some experience of succession.

Reality stretches out beyond us in space, some of it changing and some of it permanent; we cannot tell simply from the difference in what we perceive whether the difference comes from change in us or change in the thing. We can tell that only on the assumption that we are having fragmentary views of a whole that is continuous. The only continuity we know is the continuity of our own experience made possible by memory, and we try to interpret that experience in the light of the larger continuity of the world which our experience breaks up. As we go from one place to another, notice now this thing, now that, we can test interpretations made on this assumption. Wrong interpretations are those which make our experience inconsistent. If we thought that what happened at one time had no relation with what happened at another, that anything might happen any time, our experience and our own life would be the merest jumble. Our experience attains consistency only as we learn more and more to disentangle the differences in experience which come from our changes, from the changes and the variety which are part of the whole connected system of reality, of which we see now one fragment, then another. The distinction between succession in our apprehending and apprehension of succession, which is the basis of all experience of change, implies the recognition of change as not arbitrary but part of a connected system of reality. As Kant puts it in his formulation of the principle of the analogies of experience, "Experience is only possible by means of the representation of a necessary connection of perceptions."

But if our perception of reality is fragmentary, how can we think of reality as other than fragmentary, how can we fill up the gaps? Only by thinking of the whole as a connected system in space and time. For it is the nature of space and time that they can be thought of independently of the specific nature of the things in space and time, and that the space and time we perceive in any one experience must be thought of as parts of an all-embracing space and an all-embracing time. We cannot follow the whole history of a change from A to B, we can only say that, if our experience is to have any consistency, we must think that the fact that we first saw A and then saw B implies in this case that the change from A to B is part of the continuous system of change in time, that it is determined in time. But to think of an event as determined in time is not to think of it as determined by time, for time in itself could not produce one thing more than another. It is to think of it as determined by the nature of what precedes it in time. We therefore conclude that like causes have like effects; for, if anything could cause anything, we should never know that change in what we observed was due to change in us--in the position of our bodies, e.g.--and the experience of objective change would be impossible.

The principle does not tell us of itself what causes what. That can only be discovered by empirical investigation. That is necessary because we do not, as we seem to have assumed above, simply see one thing becoming another. We see parts of all kinds of changes. Hence succession may be objective but not causal. Science has, by observation and experiment, to disentangle and isolate different changes, but it could not do this without assuming the principle of causality.

Causation, then, and the other assumptions of the physical sciences, are shown by Kant to be "grounds of the possibility of experience." We cannot deny them without denying elementary distinctions in our experience, without which life would be a chaos, and which are assumed and justified every moment. While Kant thus demonstrates the validity of such principles, he is also insistent on the limitations of their application. They are principles which give consistency to experience, but must not be applied save in reference to what we experience. They apply, in his words, "only to phenomena." The purport of this limitation can, again, be most easily seen by examining the principle of causality. By means of that principle we connect one event with another, but the reality is not two different but connected events, but a continuous process. The continuous process escapes us, because our perception of it is fragmentary and discontinuous. Inasmuch as a judgment of causal connection asserts that the events we separately notice are connected, it is true, but it is false if taken to imply that reality consists of a series of discontinuous events or stages which are yet connected. Such an assumption would mean, in Kant's words, that causation is applied not to phenomena (things as they appear to us), but to things in themselves (things considered apart from the manner in which they appear to us). If we realise its falsehood, we can, he thinks, evade the contradictions which he examines in the Dialectic.

*CHAPTER V*

*THE ANTINOMIES AND CRITICISM OF THE PROOFS OF THE EXISTENCE OF GOD*

So far we have been considering the positive side of Kant's argument, his attempt to confirm the validity of the principles of science. We must now notice the negative side, his attempt to limit the application of these principles, and his denial of the possibility of knowledge in certain spheres.

We saw that Kant in his Prolegomena summed up the argument of the three chief divisions of the Critique as an answer to the questions: How is mathematics possible? How is pure science of nature possible? and, How is metaphysics possible? He qualified the last question by adding "as a natural disposition of the mind." The argument of the Dialectic is that metaphysics, in the sense of inquiry into objects which transcend the bounds of experience, is not possible as a science, but that metaphysical questions arise naturally from the nature of human reason. They cannot be answered. All we can do is to see why we cannot answer them.

Kant thought of knowledge as a process of extending the bounds of perception, of piecing together the fragmentary glimpses we get of the world, stretching them out in spatial and temporal determinations that go beyond what we have actually experienced, connecting and linking up the events which we perceive discontinuously. As science extends, the range of our knowledge widens, but the process of extension never reaches its completion. There are always more facts to be discovered and explained. Science, therefore, can never rest content with its achievements, but must always demand that the investigation of conditions should be pushed further back and on. From this sense of the incompleteness of all actual knowledge, and of all there is that might be but is not known, arises what Kant calls an ideal of reason, a demand that, in all investigation into the conditioned, we should go on till we come to the totality of conditions. This ideal he holds to be serviceable and necessary. It has, however, a natural tendency to pass from an ideal to an idea, and in so doing it gives rise to the contradictions with which the Dialectic is concerned. If all our investigation is governed by the thought that it must go on until it reaches completion, we naturally speculate on the fulfilment of that ideal, and try to form an idea of that totality of conditions, of how we should think the world if we knew it in its completeness. Herein we hypostatize the ideal or make it an idea, and we fall into contradiction; for we cannot really know the whole without knowing all its parts. If we give up the slow and never-completed process of knowing one part after another, and try to jump to the idea of the whole, we reach quite contrary results, as we apply to the conception of the whole one or other of two assumptions implied in our investigation of the parts.

Kant sharply distinguishes between the principles of the pure understanding and the ideas of reason. The former are implied in all our knowledge, and the fact that experience is not chaotic confirms them at every moment. The second are ideals which guide knowledge, but are never realised. He calls them ideas of reason, because it is the special task of reason to lay down rules for the proper and complete working of the understanding. This task, he thinks, is exemplified in the logical nature of the syllogism which brings into unity the judgments of the understanding. As he used the forms of judgment as a guiding thread to discover a complete list of categories of the understanding, so he uses the forms of syllogism to discover a complete list of the ideas of reason. In both cases Kant's reference to logical forms is far-fetched. Actually the list in the Dialectic seems to be influenced by a number of considerations not always consistent.