The Life of Sir Isaac Newton

CHAPTER III.. Newton Occupied in Grinding Hyperbolical Lenses—His First

Newton occupied in grinding Hyperbolical Lenses—His first Experiments with the Prism made in 1666—He discovers the Composition of White Light, and the different Refrangibility of the Rays which compose it—Abandons his Attempts to improve Refracting Telescopes, and resolves to attempt the Construction of Reflecting ones—He quits Cambridge on account of the Plague—Constructs two Reflecting Telescopes in 1668, the first ever executed—One of them examined by the Royal Society, and shown to the King—He constructs a Telescope with Glass Specula—Recent History of the Reflecting Telescope—Mr. Airy’s Glass Specula—Hadley’s Reflecting Telescopes—Short’s—Herschel’s—Ramage’s—Lord Oxmantown’s 30

CHAPTER IV.. He Delivers a Course of Optical Lectures At Cambridge—Is Elected

He delivers a Course of Optical Lectures at Cambridge—Is elected Fellow of the Royal Society—He communicates to them his Discoveries on the different Refrangibility and Nature of Light— Popular Account of them—They involve him in various Controversies— His Dispute with Pardies—Linus—Lucas—Dr. Hooke and Mr. Huygens— The Influence of these Disputes on the mind of Newton 47

CHAPTER V.. Mistake of Newton in Supposing That the Improvement of Refracting

Mistake of Newton in supposing that the Improvement of Refracting Telescopes was hopeless—Mr. Hall invents the Achromatic Telescope— Principles of the Achromatic Telescope explained—It is reinvented by Dollond, and improved by future Artists—Dr. Blair’s Aplanatic Telescope—Mistakes in Newton’s Analysis of the Spectrum—Modern Discoveries respecting the Structure of the Spectrum 63

CHAPTER VI.. Colours of Thin Plates First Studied by Boyle and Hooke—Newton

Colours of thin Plates first studied by Boyle and Hooke—Newton determines the Law of their Production—His Theory of Fits of easy Reflection and Transmission—Colours of thick Plates 75

CHAPTER VII.. Newton’s Theory of the Colours of Natural Bodies Explained—

Newton’s Theory of the Colours of Natural Bodies explained— Objections to it stated—New Classification of Colours—Outline of a new Theory proposed 82

CHAPTER VIII.. Newton’s Discoveries Respecting the Inflection or Diffraction of

Newton’s Discoveries respecting the Inflection or Diffraction of Light—Previous Discoveries of Grimaldi and Dr. Hooke—Labours of succeeding Philosophers—Law of Interference of Dr. Young— Fresnel’s Discoveries—New Theory of Inflection on the Hypothesis of the Materiality of Light 98

CHAPTER IX.. Miscellaneous Optical Researches of Newton—His Experiments on

Miscellaneous Optical Researches of Newton—His Experiments on Refraction—His Conjecture respecting the Inflammability of the Diamond—His Law of Double Refraction—His Observations on the Polarization of Light—Newton’s Theory of Light—His “Optics” 106

CHAPTER X.. Astronomical Discoveries of Newton—Necessity of Combined Exertion

Astronomical Discoveries of Newton—Necessity of combined Exertion to the completion of great Discoveries—Sketch of the History or Astronomy previous to the time of Newton—Copernicus, 1473–1543— Tycho Brahe, 1546–1601—Kepler, 1571–1631—Galileo, 1564–1642 110

CHAPTER XI.. The First Idea of Gravity Occurs to Newton in 1666—His First

The first Idea of Gravity occurs to Newton in 1666—His first Speculations upon it—Interrupted by his Optical Experiments—He resumes the Subject in consequence of a Discussion with Doctor Hooke—He discovers the true Law of Gravity and the Cause of the Planetary Motions—Dr. Halley urges him to publish his Principia— His Principles of Natural Philosophy—Proceedings of the Royal Society on this Subject—The Principia appears in 1687—General Account of it, and of the Discoveries it contains—They meet with great Opposition, owing to the Prevalence of the Cartesian System— Account of the Reception and Progress of the Newtonian Philosophy in Foreign Countries—Account of its Progress and Establishment in England 140

CHAPTER XII.

Doctrine of Infinite Quantities—Labours of Pappus—Kepler—Cavaleri— Roberval—Fermat—Wallis—Newton discovers the Binomial Theorem and the Doctrine of Fluxions in 1606—His Manuscript Work containing this Doctrine communicated to his Friends—His Treatise on Fluxions—His Mathematical Tracts—His Universal Arithmetic—His Methodus Differentialis—His Geometria Analytica—His Solution of the Problems proposed by Bernouilli and Leibnitz—Account of the celebrated Dispute respecting the Invention of Fluxions—Commercium Epistolicum—Report of the Royal Society—General View of the Controversy 168

CHAPTER XIII.. James Ii. Attacks the Privileges of the University of Cambridge--

James II. attacks the Privileges of the University of Cambridge-- Newton chosen one of the Delegates to resist this Encroachment—He is elected a Member of the Convention Parliament—Burning of his Manuscript—His supposed Derangement of Mind—View taken of this by foreign Philosophers—His Correspondence with Mr. Pepys and Mr. Locke at the time of his Illness—Mr. Millington’s Letter to Mr. Pepys on the subject of Newton’s Illness—Refutation of the Statement that he laboured under Mental Derangement 200

CHAPTER XIV.. No Mark of National Gratitude Conferred Upon Newton—Friendship

No Mark of National Gratitude conferred upon Newton—Friendship between him and Charles Montague, afterward Earl of Halifax—Mr. Montague appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1694—He resolves upon a Recoinage—Nominates Mr. Newton Warden of the Mint in 1695— Mr. Newton appointed Master of the Mint in 1699—Notice of the Earl of Halifax—Mr. Newton elected Associate of the Academy of Sciences in 1699—Member for Cambridge in 1701—and President of the Royal Society in 1703—Queen Anne confers upon him the Honour of Knighthood in 1705—Second Edition of the Principia, edited by Cotes—His Conduct respecting Mr. Ditton’s Method of finding the Longitude 223

CHAPTER XV.. Respect in Which Newton Was Held At the Court of George I.—the

Respect in which Newton was held at the Court of George I.—The Princess of Wales delighted with his Conversation—Leibnitz endeavours to prejudice the Princess against Sir Isaac and Locke— Controversy occasioned by his Conduct—The Princess obtains a Manuscript Abstract of his System of Chronology—The Abbé Conti is, at her request, allowed to take a Copy of it on the promise of Secrecy—He prints it surreptitiously in French, accompanied with a Refutation by M. Freret—Sir Isaac’s Defence of his System—Father Souciet attacks it, and is answered by Dr. Halley—Sir Isaac’s larger Work on Chronology published after his Death—Opinions respecting it—Sir Isaac’s Paper on the Form of the most ancient Year 234

CHAPTER XVI.

Theological Studies of Sir Isaac—Their Importance to Christianity— Motives to which they have been ascribed—Opinions of Biot and La Place considered—His Theological Researches begun before his supposed Mental Illness—The Date of these Works fixed—Letters to Locke—Account of his Observations on Prophecy—His Lexicon Propheticum—His Four Letters to Dr. Bentley—Origin of Newton’s Theological Studies—Analogy between the Book of Nature and that of Revelation 242

CHAPTER XVII.. The Minor Discoveries and Inventions of Newton—His Researches on

The Minor Discoveries and Inventions of Newton—His Researches on Heat—On Fire and Flame—On Elective Attraction—On the Structure of Bodies—His supposed Attachment to Alchymy—His Hypothesis respecting Ether as the Cause of Light and Gravity—On the Excitation of Electricity in Glass—His Reflecting Sextant invented before 1700—His Reflecting Microscope—His Prismatic Reflector as a Substitute for the small Speculum of Reflecting Telescopes—His Method of varying the Magnifying Power of Newtonian Telescopes— His Experiments on Impressions on the Retina 265

CHAPTER XVIII.

His Acquaintance with Dr. Pemberton—Who edits the Third Edition of the Principia—His first Attack of ill Health—His Recovery—He is taken ill in consequence of attending the Royal Society—His Death on the 20th March, 1727—His Body lies in state—His Funeral—He is buried in Westminster Abbey—His Monument described—His Epitaph— A Medal struck in honour of him—Roubiliac’s full-length Statue of him erected in Cambridge—Division of his Property—His Successors 284

CHAPTER XIX.. Permanence of Newton’s Reputation—Character of His Genius—His

Permanence of Newton’s Reputation—Character of his Genius—His Method of Investigation similar to that used by Galileo—Error in ascribing his Discoveries to the Use of the Methods recommended by Lord Bacon—The Pretensions of the Baconian Philosophy examined— Sir Isaac Newton’s Social Character—His great Modesty—The Simplicity of his Character—His Religious and Moral Character— His Hospitality and Mode of Life—His Generosity and Charity—His Absence—His Personal Appearance—Statues and Pictures of him— Memorials and Recollections of him 292

APPENDIX, No. I.—Observations on the Family of Sir Isaac Newton 307

APPENDIX, No. II.—Letter from Sir Isaac Newton to Francis Aston, Esq., a young Friend who was on the eve of setting out on his Travels 316

APPENDIX, No. III.—“A Remarkable and Curious Conversation between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr. Conduit.” 320

LIFE

SIR ISAAC NEWTON.

CHAPTER I.. _the Pre-Eminence of Sir Isaac Newton’s Reputation—the Interest

The Pre-eminence of Sir Isaac Newton’s Reputation—The Interest attached to the Study of his Life and Writings—His Birth and Parentage—His early Education—Is sent to Grantham School—His early Attachment to Mechanical Pursuits—His Windmill—His Waterclock—His Self-moving Cart—His Sundials—His Preparation for the University.

The name of Sir Isaac Newton has by general consent been placed at the head of those great men who have been the ornaments of their species. However imposing be the attributes with which time has invested the sages and the heroes of antiquity, the brightness of their fame has been eclipsed by the splendour of his reputation; and neither the partiality of rival nations, nor the vanity of a presumptuous age, has ventured to dispute the ascendency of his genius. The philosopher, indeed, to whom posterity will probably assign the place next to Newton, has characterized the Principia as pre-eminent above all the productions of human intellect, and has thus divested of extravagance the contemporary encomium upon its author,

Nec fas est propius mortali attingere Divos. HALLEY.

So near the gods—man cannot nearer go.

The biography of an individual so highly renowned cannot fail to excite a general interest. Though his course may have lain in the vale of private life, and may have been unmarked with those dramatic events which throw a lustre even round perishable names, yet the inquiring spirit will explore the history of a mind so richly endowed,—will study its intellectual and moral phases, and will seek the shelter of its authority on those great questions which reason has abandoned to faith and hope.

If the conduct and opinions of men of ordinary talent are recorded for our instruction, how interesting must it be to follow the most exalted genius through the incidents of common life;—to mark the steps by which he attained his lofty pre-eminence; to see how he performs the functions of the social and the domestic compact; how he exercises his lofty powers of invention and discovery; how he comports himself in the arena of intellectual strife; and in what sentiments, and with what aspirations he quits the world which he has adorned.

In almost all these bearings, the life and writings of Sir Isaac Newton abound with the richest counsel. Here the philosopher will learn the art by which alone he can acquire an immortal name. The moralist will trace the lineaments of a character adjusted to all the symmetry of which our imperfect nature is susceptible; and the Christian will contemplate with delight the high-priest of science quitting the study of the material universe,—the scene of his intellectual triumphs,—to investigate with humility and patience the mysteries of his faith.

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