CHAPTER XII.. Points--Their Relative Importance, and Where to Look for Their

POINTS--THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE, AND WHERE TO LOOK FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

A gentleman, when designing to purchase a horse, should think about the matter, and should determine, in his own mind, the kind of animal he desires to obtain. The want of such definite knowledge is the great deficiency with the majority of would-be buyers, and is the chief cause of those annoyances which, ultimately, tempt too many well-disposed persons into dishonest company.

Having settled the minutest particulars to his own satisfaction, the gentleman should never seek to secure a cheap article. Knowing as may be the general public, horse dealers are quite up to the mark of popular cunning. Goodness in horse flesh is money’s worth at any market; and every horse dealer in London is fully sensible to the merit as well as to the value of all creatures in his yard. Therefore, the gentleman will best court civility and honesty by being prepared to give a fair price for that excellence which he is desirous of securing.

The above maxim must be attended to, because a feeling person, when he buys a horse, will be sensible he is taking a new member into his family. No right-minded man can ever treat life as it were an inanimate article;--to be accepted at his will and to be discarded at his pleasure. A lasting bond should, through ownership, be formed between mute submission and honored authority; for man, having the right of choice, tacitly undertakes to shelter and to protect, as a return for willing service rendered. Such is the implied or natural agreement: its obligations ought to enforce that gentleness which should guard the inferior.

To fit the reader for exercising a right of selection in a dealer’s yard, is the intention of the author. The gentleman who peruses this page must, therefore, pardon an impertinence if, in the following descriptions, he is treated as one entirely ignorant of horse flesh. When all must be addressed, it is clearly impossible to make allowance for degrees of learning. The most ignorant must be made to understand, and the best informed must generously overlook those discursions which, disregarding personal attainments, appeal to the condition of the uninitiated. To be intelligible, it will be necessary the author should point out the importance of certain structures, and explain the uses which appertain to particular organs or parts of the animal economy.

The skeleton is the framework of the trunk and of the limbs. The vertebræ are the base, toward which all the other bones concentrate, or from which all the other osseous parts originate. Therefore, to start from the commencement, we see at one end of the back-bone the skull is situated; while at the other extremity the tail is pendent. The arrangement exactly accords with the system observed in every well-regulated vessel. The sailor who is appointed to look out, stands forward; while the individual who steers is always stationed at the poop. The tail, in the quadruped, principally directs the course. Hence we perceive the folly of those people who, to gratify a whim, excise or mutilate the motor integrity of so important a part: thus sacrificing positive safety to a false notion of improved appearance.

The animal, gazing in the direction which it desires to proceed upon, inclines the body toward that point; while the tail, being likewise moved in an opposite course, sways the trunk into the proper track. The flowing hair, operated upon by the wind, gently favors the inclination. By understanding this, the reader will comprehend the reason why a short tail is rarely compatible with perfect safety. The appendage, which mankind regard as chiefly of service to switch away the flies, therefore has a higher and far more important function assigned to it.

The want of alacrity in avoiding danger is justly esteemed a great defect; but what right had man to complain of his dumb companion’s tardiness, when, to gratify a caprice or to conform with the fashion, he deprived his servant of the agent by which all sudden motions were regulated? Happily, however, the barbarous custom which once prevailed is now generally discarded; although docking is even at the present moment occasionally practiced, under a notion of improving deficient quarters, while thinning the tail and mane are commonly adopted.

Nevertheless, the reader of any experience can hardly have failed to remark that, since the practice of mutilation has become less general, those fearful horse accidents which during the old coaching days were of almost hourly occurrence, have not so frequently shocked the sensibilities of society.

Such a circumstance cannot be accounted for by the smaller number of animals at present retained for private use. It is well ascertained that railways, which it was originally supposed would prove detrimental to the breed of horses, have had a decidedly opposite tendency, the animals being about twice as numerous as they were during any previous period. Thus, with more universal distribution, greater security has been attained; and we perceive, in general operation, only the one cause to which present security can be assigned. Masters are not much more prudent now than they were formerly; while fast coaches were not the sole causes of the catastrophes of our fathers’ days; neither did such vehicles start at every hour nor travel upon every road.

The turning or guiding power having been pointed out, the attention must next be directed to the region where all strength centers, and from which all ability for motion proceeds.

When the reader has been riding in any vehicle and looking down upon the spine of the horse, he can hardly have failed to remark that the widest portion of the body was the prominence of the hip-bones. The posterior parts, or those behind the projections, are not continuous of size; but they nevertheless are far more bulky and altogether more fleshy than any of the forward surfaces of the body. Flesh is only another term for muscle; consequently where flesh is most conspicuous, strength most resides. The muscles of the hind limbs spring from a large bone, variously named in common parlance as the haunch-bone or the pelvic-bone. It is also spoken of by anatomists as the os innominata. This large bone joins the spine at the hips, and thus lends support to the posterior region. But the vertebræ, immediately before the hips, are aided by no such accessory. The loins stand alone, or are placed entirely without support. This part of the body merely consists of certain bones, over which and under which run thick layers or solid masses of muscular fiber.

A thorough comprehension of the osseous weakness apparent in the skeleton of the loins must convince the reader of the absolute necessity which exists for some compensating agency, so as to fit the back for its burden. The loins therefore should be bulky or muscular. They cannot be too large; but may easily be the reverse. Small loins or weakly loins admit of no compensation. The author does not remember an instance where such a formation was not associated with mean quarters; whereas he does not recollect a case where size, in this region, was not evidence of general strength and of remarkable vigor. The position of the part is peculiar. It is intermediate and lies between the haunches, which are the propelling powers, and the thorax, which region is formed to endure, to support, or to uphold what the back carries. All intermediate structures demand strength; because such a position exposes the part to the full impulse of adjacent force, its office being simply to transmit that impetus which it directly receives. Accordingly, the development of the loins, both in man and in horse, may be cited as the best proof of the vital power which resides within the frame.

The loins, to evidence the transmitting office peculiar to this region, receive and convey onward the propelling force of the quarters. So, when the body is suddenly checked, the loins have to master the first energy of the onward impetus, or have to endure the full violence of the sudden arrestation of the forward motion in both the animal and its burden. In the brief but dangerous feats of leaping, galloping, etc., the position of the region and the duties involved by it are so obvious, that the author cannot presume to dilate upon what appears to be self-evident.

Muscular loins are imperative in racers and in hunters. They should also characterize all saddle horses; for it is impossible the rider should be safely carried unless the back be strong. The animal designed for light harness purposes can, perhaps, best dispense with such an essential, although even in that case the deficiency is very far from a recommendation; for weak loins are usually associated with a narrow chest, a lanky frame, and a total lack of every property which characterizes endurance.

In fact, every purchaser should first glance at this part; for here reside those proofs which the scientific mind and the practical judgment unite in esteeming. No matter what quality may be desired: be it strength or appearance, be it speed or endurance, breadth of loins is always important. Lumbar development is essential in all cases. In short, there is no property for the possession of which the quadruped can be valued that is not, more or less, and generally much more than in any degree less, dependent upon this portion of the frame for its exhibition.

The back-bone of the horse--lumbar bones and all--is often remarkable for very opposite developments which pervade its entire length. These are sinking down or curving inward, and rising up or arching outward. When the line declines more than usual, the form is denominated a “hollow back” or “a saddle back,” and is generally supposed to be indicative of dorsal debility. Animals of such a formation, however, commonly are possessed of high crests, of full loins, as well as lofty haunches, and they generally exhibit very proud action.

The late William Percivall, Esq., in his valuable work upon the action of the horse, alludes to a creature which displayed this peculiar formation, and nevertheless was an excellent hunter. Many readers will remember that the once fashionable Lord Petersham used to drive a quadruped of this description about London. His lordship’s cabriolet could never stop, but a crowd of admirers immediately gathered about it. Animals thus shaped, notwithstanding the opinions of horsemen, are always highly regarded by the populace, and always afford a very elastic seat for the rider. Judging from inquiry, and guided by the reports of experience, the author--although such a make does not warrant an idea of any excessive strength--yet inclines to think that the decision which condemns it as symptomatic of extraordinary debility, needs further confirmation before it should be universally accepted.

Animals with hollow backs are usually conspicuous, even among the equine race, for many estimable qualities. They are generally very docile, and uncommonly good tempered. Putting the undue sinking of the spine out of the question, they display numerous excellent points; and, even admitting all that may be said about weakness, they exhibit such prominent good qualities as in many occupations may be justly esteemed more than an equivalent for their bodily deficiency,--especially when employed to carry a lady’s saddle.

The very reverse of all that has been recorded above usually characterizes the “roach back.” The author has hitherto found creatures thus made, distinguished for the absence of that power with which prejudice is inclined to invest them. Such animals are to be seen feeding upon the commons about Essex, being the pictures of checked development and the representatives of heartless neglect. The offsprings of aged dams or colts that have been forced to submit to early labor, every feature testifies to the abuse which they have undergone. Quadrupeds equally misshapen and equally neglected may frequently be seen dragging agricultural carts through the streets of London.

Such deformities are usually vicious and spiteful. They are capable of little exertion, and offer a seat of torture to the individual who is so unfortunate as to be mounted upon a roach back. Some years ago, the author chanced to dissect the body of a quadruped of this description. Death had not affected the upward protrusion of the spine, which retained its peculiar curve. The loins were very poor, and several of the lumbar bones were joined together by abnormal osseous deposit. The quarters were mean, the belly large, the withers low, the neck ewe-shaped, the head big, and the legs long. In short, such horses are equally misshapen and mischievous. Any gentleman had better endure fatigue than accept such a creature for the companion of his journey.

My respected friend, Mr. Waller, informs me that he once had a “roach-backed” or a “hog-backed” mare which was remarkable for an ungainly aspect. But it had very large loins and an excellent barrel. It could draw a loaded gig fifty miles in one day, and, at the journey’s end, go direct to the manger. Here malformation was compensated by the existence of other qualities; but the above example was not benefited by the “hog back,” which must have interfered with its natural powers. The same gentleman bears testimony to an excellent hunter, of the above conformation, having likewise fallen under his observance. The animal, to be sure, used to “buck jump” its fences; or, in other words, it used to spring suddenly from the earth, without notice or preparation for the movement. It never gave the rider any warning of its intention by rising to its leap. Therefore the loins must have been defective, although the animal was endowed with extraordinary power, which alone could have enabled it to endure the frequent repetition of so unnatural a proceeding. However, the person who was seated, during a hard ride across country, on the top of a “roach back,” and was indulged with numerous “buck jumps” during the morning’s amusement, although he should invariably be the first in at the death, does by no means present to the author’s mind an object deserving of any man’s envy.

Neither a long nor a short backed horse is, necessarily, desirable. All depends upon the strength of those muscles which support the spine; though, all other points being equal, length generally provides a springy seat for the saddle: whereas a short back commonly possesses the greater endurance. A long back, having bulging loins, is, however, infinitely to be preferred to a short back, with deficient lumbar muscles. The mere extent of a part can be no absolute proof in either direction; though, should a choice lie between two carcasses, supposing each to be equally deficient or both to be equally favored, then the short back should be preferred, because all increase of length necessitates a greater strain upon the organs of support.

But the spine cannot be too long, supposing length to be accompanied by a proportionate excess of muscle; for length and strength of course increase speed. The practice, common among the vulgar, of placing the open hand upon the upper part of the abdomen to ascertain the distance of the last rib from the hip-bone, is a silly custom, and can prove nothing but the ignorance of those by whom it is exhibited. A living body should be judged as a whole. One part should be viewed in its relation to another development. No opinion on such a subject ought to be formed upon any solitary test or independent development.

When considering this portion of the subject, the author may be permitted to state, it is a disgrace to the intelligence of the present age that any cart should be built without springs. The weight and the uses of the vehicle are the reasons supposed to necessitate the custom. But reason perceives that the real question is, whether living thews and muscles shall endure the burden, or whether this shall be imposed upon inanimate metal? Reducing the matter to a calculation of pounds, shillings, and pence,--which is the cheaper? Which is the more delicate? Which is easier to repair, or the less costly to renew? Fact pronounces iron to be the answer to the foregoing questions; and sense also declares life has no right to be subjected to that unmitigated labor which Providence has provided a means to alleviate.

The tail is a continuation from the vertebræ. Therefore there is reason why a stout dock or a thick root to the tail should be regarded as a sign of excellence; because the part affords some evidence concerning the stoutness and the muscularity of the spine itself. Or, at all events, such testimony is the nearest approach to positive proof which circumstances permit reason to obtain. Nevertheless, it allows of nothing stronger than an inference; but the position of the tail is more decided. It should originate level with the prolonged line of the back, and should look the thing it is, a continuation of the spine; for, in this position, it necessitates a greater length in the posterior muscles of the haunch, some of which extend from the last bone of the vertebræ almost to the hock. In a body whose power is dependent on contractility, of course length of substance favors the ability to shorten or to contract. In proof of this, animals with the tails “well set on” are commonly remarkable for speed and for activity.

The reader will perceive how much the aspect of the quarters is governed by the position of the tail, when he inspects the illustration which is here submitted to his examination.

THOROUGH-BRED ARAB WELL BRED RAT TAIL ORDINARY TAIL LOWLY BRED CART TAIL ]

The Arab naturally bears the tail erect; and by the rapidity of its motions, together with the power of the organ, an explanation is afforded of the ease and the grace with which this breed of horses can perform the most difficult evolutions. The tail of the English thorough-bred, without emphasizing the Arab trait, nevertheless, by its position and its graceful carriage, declares the origin whence its lineage is derived. A rat tail is a deformity generally disguised in large towns. There exist a wide class of experienced horsemen who assert they never knew a rat tail to spring from a bad body. Why baldness of a particular region should indicate general excellence, cannot be explained; but the author is not prepared to quote a single known exception to this all but universal prejudice, although it may be opposed to reason.

The vast majority of quadrupeds, however, are not conspicuous either for the carriage or the position of the tails. The dock, in the greater number, is compressed between the haunches. The filthy custom of nicking was intended to rectify this position. A portion of the depressor muscle was wantonly destroyed, which of course left the opposing agent with uncontrolled power. Such barbarity, assuredly, made the tail stick out. But it injured its utility by damaging its activity. It, moreover, left the situation of the organ without amendment or made it more conspicuous. It was a silly practice, and is now, happily, all but discarded.

The reader, having had his attention directed to the subject, will probably be surprised to notice how seldom horses have tails well set on to their bodies. In short, the position of the tail, if employed as a test for excellence, would cause the majority of quadrupeds to be rejected. The tail, however, should always be observed, not as an absolute proof of the properties, but as suggestive of the breed. The cart horse exhibits a thick dock, which is not remarkable for activity. It has one peculiarity; this is, the extent to which the coat grows backward, or the manner in which the origin of the long hairs is deficient near to the haunch.

The head is the opposite to the tail. In the last, the spinal marrow is represented only by thread-like nerves. In the first, the center of all sense resides. The brain, with the bones that inclose it and the parts that surround it, constitutes no inconsiderable burden. Many structures aid in its support; but the general idea that it is upheld by the vertebræ, is no more than a popular error. The bones of the neck rather prevent the muscular force dragging the head backward, or limit the action of those agents, than actually support any portion of the weight. The ease and the grace with which a head, well set on, is carried, presents a beautiful object for contemplation; our admiration should be excited by a perception that, great as the weight may be, it is so exquisitely poised as to inflict no sense of oppression upon the creature. The chin can, without effort, almost repose upon the chest: the nostril, by the mere operation of the will, can be elevated to the breeze. The motions are equally varied, rapid, and incessant. Each inclination is directed by a purpose; and volition is exercised, without experience of the vast machinery by which the changes are accomplished, although the motions are as active as the power must be great by which they are directed.

The course of the body is, as was before stated, greatly governed by the position of the head. To the inexperienced, the freedom of this part may appear of little consequence; thus, ladies are well known to be the principal perpetuaters of the bearing-rein, although it has for ages been recognized that constant tension will destroy that sensibility of lip by which the course of the animal is now directed. The bit, operating upon a natural mouth, can sway the body during the topmost speed; for by the inclination of the head is the trunk to be rapidly turned.

It is therefore imperative, for the ease and safety of the rider or the driver, that the head should be well set on, and should be carried without sensible restriction. Should the rein be held too tight and a false step be made, or should the foot be placed upon a rolling stone, the quadruped is almost certain to fall; for the rapid motion of the head being impossible, it cannot be used to restore the disturbed balance. The nimbleness which could avoid sudden danger is destroyed by the fashionable want of feeling. It is a matter for surprise that the presence of the bearing-rein is never alluded to when gentlemen seek redress because their vehicles have been damaged. Most horsemen, however, esteem the neck for its appearance, and few comprehend its utility.

Any person can discern the difference which characterizes the necks here represented. The galloway in front has a well-formed neck, although many pretended judges would object that it is too bulky. Bulk supposes the presence of muscle; therefore a neck, if properly shaped, cannot be too thick. The majority of the cervical motor agents extend either to the trunk or to the fore limbs. The size of the neck, consequently, influences other regions, and confers positive advantage of both strength and activity.

A head well set on is carried in advance of the body only so far as may be necessary to counteract the comparative lightness of the forward structures.

On the other hand, thinness and smallness of neck is one of the peculiar features of emaciation in the horse. It is always seen in the old and in the half-starved quadruped. Hence it may be inferred not to be a sign of vigor in any condition. The observation should be directed to the balance, the ease, and the activity of the cervical region. As respects its bulk, the author never remembers to have beheld an animal with a neck too thick; though, he is sorry to confess, he has witnessed many of man’s servitors with this part of the body most lamentably attenuated.

The second horse, in the foregoing illustration, has that form of neck which is commonly seen upon what are called “well-bred” and “good horses.” It is not incompatible with safety of pace; but it is deficient in beauty of outline or grace of carriage; and it cannot be fully equal to all the uses of a well-formed neck. The chin may be lowered; but it will be at the expense of an effort, and by the unscrupulous employment of the bit or the rein. Such a resort must inflict acute torture, especially as this particular kind of neck is rarely accompanied by breadth of channel or width of space between the branches of the lower jaw.

The inability to lower the head with ease, removes the eye from the ground, and exposes an animal to trip or to stumble, should any sudden inequality be present in the road. The second form is, therefore, preferable to the succeeding neck, which, though possessed of a more graceful crest, yet in the protrusion of the nose indicates that strain upon the muscular system by which progression is accomplished. No force, save that of mechanism, can possibly bring and hold down such a head. This defect exposes the animal to much suffering, renders it liable to fall, makes it very heavy in the hand, and speedily ruins the mouth.

The last horse exhibits the worst form of the group,--or it presents a long neck with the head pointing downward. Such an animal is never safe in harness; but is totally unsuited for the saddle. Creatures thus formed are commonly good tempered, but sluggish. This position of the head should to all, save only the totally inexperienced, characterize a deficiency of nervous energy; and likewise indicate the cost at which pace is maintained, and declare the uncertainty of foot. The neck should never be protruded, save during the exertion of the greatest speed. An animal which habitually assumes this attitude, suggests that an ordinary effort is felt to be a mighty tax upon its capabilities.

The following illustration exhibits a peculiarity of form which the author believes is confined to the heavier breed of draught horses. Such a neck is alone compatible with slowness of pace. It is, however, falsely imagined to denote excessive strength. So far as thickness is concerned, muscle must be present, or adipose tissue must abound; but in length there is a deficiency which necessarily will limit the amount of motor power. In justification of this opinion, may be quoted a well-known fact, that the huge mountains of flesh which parade the streets of London before the brewers’ drays, are not remarkable for a power of draught, for a capability of endurance, or for any length of existence.

The ewe-necked horse is one in which every appearance of crest is absent. Such a form may possess length; but it is generally wanting both in depth and in substance. Animals of this formation are generally active, but weakly: other parts are too often characterized by a narrowness of build, which materially detracts from a capability for endurance. The appearance is, moreover, mean; this is usually rendered more conspicuous by a thinness and a shortness of mane. The shape of the neck is not, however, to be considered only as governing other organs, but is also to be regarded as a consequence of a prevailing absence of development. So may the frequent accompaniment of a vicious disposition be viewed as the result of that feebleness which converts the easiest task into a mighty labor, and of that absence of beauty which can neither kindle the pride nor awaken the fondness of the owner.

Certain supposed judges are greatly prejudiced in favor of a short neck. The characteristic is in some minds associated with the presence of bodily strength; but it cannot be remarkable for denoting the existence of such a quality, because an absence of length must abbreviate the amount of muscular fiber. Shortness of neck, besides suggesting the presence of fat, and interfering with activity, unfits the animal for certain situations. A bull neck, although its possessor inhabited the most luxuriant pasture, would compel the creature to subsist on short commons. Nags, however long may be the legs, or short shall be their necks, generally manage to crop the grass, although to do so may cause a constant strain upon the limbs, thus counteracting one of those effects which the run is invariably supposed to realize. Below is inserted an illustration showing the artifice adopted by animals of this description.

Having noticed those portions of the spinal column in which the vertebræ are not associated with other bones, or do not enter into the formation of compound parts, it may assist the judgment of the reader if the relative importance of these regions is more particularly descanted upon.

However desirable an arched and lofty crest may be, it is not, when separately considered, any absolute proof of estimable properties. Conjoined with other points, it renders excellence more excellent; but, alone, no deduction should be drawn from it. In many parts of Germany, the horses exhibit beautifully formed necks, bearing luxuriant manes; but in other respects the quadrupeds are lanky, weak, and washy creatures. The dock deserves attention, although it can warrant no more than an inference. If it suggests that which other developments equally support, it constitutes a valuable accessory toward a sound opinion; but, by itself, it is of no importance. On the contrary, the loins are absolute proof: their swelling testimony may be trusted, should both neck and tail oppose their evidence. This portion of the body never deceives. It is worthy of all reliance: what it declares must be implicitly received. And, to many minds, it may appear the more deserving of estimation, because full loins are commonly accompanied by a stout dock.

Attached to the neck is the head, which, in the horse, always bespeaks those changes produced by varieties of treatment and difference of climate. The favorite and the companion of the semi-civilized Arab is, by its association with its master, elevated in intelligence as in beauty. The agricultural teamster of this country exhibits, in its expression, the apathy with which it is regarded by its rustic attendant. These are, probably, the extremes of the race. That the reader may recognize the distinction between them, front views of both heads are above shown.

In the Arab, the spectator can hardly fail to remark the distance by which the eyes are divided. The brow is equally characterized by its length as by its breadth, and constitutes no mean portion of the entire head. In the lowly-bred face, the region of the brain is comparatively small, its width presenting no obvious contrast to the other features. The nostrils are not only compressed, but their margins are thick; while the upper lip is adorned by a pair of abundant mustaches. Some animals the author has beheld with embellishments of this order which would not have disgraced the most hirsute of guardsmen.

The head of a well-bred horse has been frequently described as forming a straight line in its forward margin, when it is contemplated from the side. Such an assertion is generally true; but it must not be received as absolutely correct. Horses have been imported from Arabia with the craniums and the frontal sinuses considerably enlarged. Such a peculiarity is not esteemed a defect by the natives of the East. This fact is established by animals, thus characterized, having been sent to this country as presents for personages of exalted rank. Such developments may not strictly accord with English notions of equine beauty; but the size of the case, in some measure, denotes the magnitude of that which it contains. A large brain can be no detriment to any animal which is partly prized for its intelligence.

Another peculiarity exhibited by a few English thorough-breds, is the Roman nose, or a prominence of the nasal bones. The trait is, however, less common in the pure Arabian blood than is the previous development. There is a breed of blood horses which exhibit a prominence of the nasal bones, or, in other words, present what is designated as the “Roman nose.” This particular shape, however, is with the coarser breeds far from unusual; although in animals of slow work it cannot be esteemed a beauty, it also should not be condemned as a huge defect. The depression of the nasal point may allow less freedom to the nostril; but in a creature whose kind of labor permits slow respiration to be employed, this constitutes no absolute objection; while many quadrupeds of this formation are conspicuous for their high courage and their lively disposition.

The leading or distinguishing characteristic of the thorough-bred horse is its superior intelligence. The stranger hardly has spoken to the creature, before it begins to investigate his personal appearance. It appears to appreciate the words addressed to it, and it responds to any act of kindness which may be lavished upon it. Added to this, is the evident neatness of its formation; the clearness of its various features; the grace as well as the lightness of its construction, united with speaking evidences of strength and of energy. The quadruped appears fit to be the associate of man, and almost seems upon an intellectual level with its master. As we contemplate the lustrous eye, and feel the rush of inquisitive breath, it is impossible not to credit the tales narrated of the creature’s affection and of its generosity. We can then sympathize with the love of the Arab for his steed, and sensibly feel that life in the desert would be rendered less desolate by the presence of such a companion.

Yet this elegant quadruped is cast in no arbitrary mould. Its beauty admits of the same variety which is conspicuous in other animated bodies. The ears usually are small, and approximate toward their tips; but they may also be large, and the points may be even wider apart than the roots of the organs. Yet, in every shape, a thinness or a delicacy of the outer walls, a nice arrangement of the internal protecting hairs, together with a fineness in the investing coat, attest to the purity of the parental stock.

A tribe of lop-eared thorough-breds are known to exist upon the English course: this peculiarity, however, is not a distinguishing mark of purity of blood, or a characteristic running throughout the race. The fall of the ear exposes the interior of the organ to the eye of the spectator: that circumstance, no doubt, suggested the removal of the hairs which nature placed as guards before the opening. It is now a common practice, with almost every groom, to singe off these hairs with the flame of a candle. Such an agent cannot be safely intrusted to vulgar hands; probably to this foolish custom is owing the deafness which by horses is so frequently exhibited. Any protruding hair the scissors might excise; but as regards the interior of the ear, grooms, had they even a slight acquaintance with physiology, would know that the common Father was actuated by benevolence in all His ordinizations, and therefore hairs have their appointed uses.

With the ears no corporal excellence is connected, but with the health of this organ the general safety is associated; for the acuteness of the animal’s hearing affords no mean protection to the rider. The absolute quietude of the ears indicates that sounds are powerless to excite the organ. Excessive restlessness of these parts suggests that by straining of one sense, the animal is endeavoring to recompense the obscurity of another: that the vision is either lost or imperfect. A lively carriage of the ears expresses a sprightly temper, and generally denotes a kind disposition; whereas one member constantly directed forward and the other backward, is a frequent sign of “vice,” or of timidity in its watchfulness.

Near the ear is the seat of another special sense. Many people will pretend to discover the disposition of a horse by the character of the eyes. A restlessness of the globe, the display of any unusual quantity of white, and a perpetual tension on the upper lid are imagined to signify a “vicious” inclination; but, in reality, these traits express only the watchfulness of fear. Such indications are evidences of that suffering which has been experienced; and these traits are consonant with an anxiety to escape the future assaults of brutality. Despair may not be desirable as a companion; but it is not, therefore, to be falsely stigmatized.

A prominent eye, expressive of repose, and not exhibiting an abundance of white, has been pronounced to be declarative of honesty, though certain parties have condemned it as indicative of slothfulness. A quickness or activity, as contradistinguished from a restlessness in the visual organ, is, however, to be desired. The small eye usual with the coarser breed of animals should be avoided, because it is generally accompanied by a heaviness of movement. The retracted or deep-set eye, which displays the organ only partially, which is somewhat angular in figure, and which is commonly spoken of as “a pig-eye,” denotes either weakness of the part, or, to the majority of horsemen, will suggest a previous attack of specific ophthalmia. The disease, however, is not, in the author’s opinion, hereditary, but is generated by that closeness of abode and that absence of ventilation to which all grooms strongly incline. The present writer has most frequently beheld ophthalmia in full and in perfect organs.

Before quitting the consideration of the face, it is imperative that the mouth and nostrils should be alluded to. In the well-bred horse, these are both large, when compared with the same developments in the animal of a coarser origin. The lips should be smooth, soft, compressed, and suggestive of energy; but they should be without the smallest aspect of ill temper. About them, numerous isolated and long hairs may be located; but there should be no accumulation resembling a mustache, or bearing even a distant likeness to a beard. Such growths are commonly removed by the scissors of the groom; but the palm of the hand, if placed against the muzzle, is certain to ascertain the truth if those things ever have been in existence.

The lowly-bred animal, being chiefly employed for slow uses, has not the need for those ample draughts of air which the faster speed necessitates should be rapidly respired; nor is the mouth declarative of the same determination which marks the lips of the purer blood. The bit is scarcely ever present upon the carter’s harness, nor are the mouths of his charges formed to retain this invention. The characteristics of low birth cannot be effaced from the countenance of a quadruped. Age or privation cannot confound the two breeds. The thorough-bred in ruin is not to be mistaken for the teamster. No want, no suffering, no length of years can obliterate the evidence of nobility from the animal of pure descent.

When purchasing a horse, it is always well to examine the angles of the lips. If any sign of induration is remarked, it signifies that the animal has suffered from the abuse of the bit. If on any limited space, however small, a patch of white skin is observed located upon a dark ground, it denotes that “once upon a time” the true skin has been removed from that place, while cicatrix now exists to apprise future purchasers of the fact. If anything like a hardened lump should be felt in this situation, it demonstrates that the quadruped has a hard mouth, and is an obstinate puller, or that it has passed through the hands of an unfeeling master.

In either case, the creature is not a desirable possession. Harshness is not a kindly educator, nor does it beget docility of spirit in the being which is subjected to its exactions. A hard mouth necessitates one of the severest trials which can be inflicted on a horse proprietor. It is painful, every time a change of direction is desired, for the rider to tug at the reins; such a necessity soon destroys every pleasure of the exercise. But a regular puller is always a dangerous servant. Generally it turns out to be a “bolter,” and, before running away, will seize the bit between its teeth, when the driver or the rider alike is helpless. Our entreaty to the reader is, to turn his back upon the offer, should he ever be solicited to buy a horse having a damaged mouth.

At this point it is requisite the author should review the various organs which, together, constitute the head. An activity equally removed from stillness and from restlessness, denotes health to be present in all the seats of special sense. These things are of more importance than at first glance is apparent, because such united testimony is the best security as regards the general system. It equally testifies to the soundness of the brain and to the healthiness of the body. When the animal suffers, the perceptions mostly are inactive; when the brain is oppressed, the loss of sense first announces the disorder.

These organs also deserve attention for their own sakes. Man is not gifted with remarkable faculties either in seeing, in hearing, or in smelling. He therefore desires such assistance as the companion of his journey may afford. The value, consequently, of an animal is materially deteriorated by the loss of any of its protective powers. These, when all enjoyed in perfection, assist one another. When any organ is excited, the rest are seldom dormant. Thus when the quadruped perceives in the distance some obscure object, the ears are advanced and the nostrils are inflated. The same general movement is remarked whenever the hearing catches a distant sound, or whenever the scent detects a novel odor. All are conjoined to produce one result; therefore the loss of one cannot be without effect upon the uniformity of action.

As regards the formation of the countenance, an enlarged cranium is no detriment; but the Roman nose sometimes interferes with the capacity of the nostril. When it produces such a result, the peculiarity warrants either a reduction of price or an absolute rejection of the offered sale. In other respects, this make is regarded as of no importance; but it certainly does not add to the appearance of the animal. Horses are generally prized in proportion to their beauty: nor can the author quarrel with such a foundation of judgment, as, in most animals, harmony of figure justifies a belief that excellence of spirit also exists.

The nostrils, however, are associated with the important function of respiration; therefore these organs demand consideration, when regarded apart from the other senses. They admit the air which is inhaled by the expansion of the chest; consequently the dimension of the nostrils allows an inference to be drawn as to the capacity of the lungs. This opinion, however, should be only advanced after the alteration has been noted between their size when at rest and their enlargement when excited. Should no marked variation be produced by the opposite states, then the value of the animal is only to be considered in connection with slow work, as the speed must be regulated by the capability of receiving a quantity of vital air proportioned to the power exerted.

After the capacity has been observed, the nature of the movements of the nasal openings should be noticed. Subsequent to exertion, ease of motion is not to be anticipated; but nothing approaching to spasmodic action should be remarked. The nostrils ought to be regularly expanded: not to fly open with a jerk, or to suddenly enlarge their form, as under the influence of a gasp. A capability of dilatation, attended with an evenness of motion, however fast the movement may be, are the points which should be looked for in the nostrils of a horse,--because the characteristic changes attending inhalation best expose any defect in the respiratory apparatus; for, by such a test, the remotest disposition to become a roarer, or to exhibit diseased wind, is easy of detection.

Connected with the head, every horseman comprehends how much width of channel, or of space between the branches of the lower jaw, is to be desired. The reason why such a form is highly prized in an animal of fleetness or of exertion, is because such an opening allows room for the varied movements necessary for the offices of respiration, or for the change of position imperative in the larynx, which is located near to or within the hollow thus provided. Clear space is of course imperative, wherever rapidity of movement has to be executed. There is also another thing equally desirable. That addition is a full development of the motor power which affects the larynx.

This last point has never been sought for, although the writer has seen it prominently exhibited in some animals. Wherever it has been beheld, the author has confidently pronounced the high character of the quadruped; he has not, in a single instance, been mistaken in his conclusion. The muscles which are attached to the spur process of os hyoides, or to the bone which regulates the movement of the larynx, when well developed, are discernible in the living animal. They form a kind of indication as though nature was half disposed to invest the animal with a miniature dew-lap. They lead the muscles of the neck perceptibly more forward than these agents run in the majority of horses, and in some specimens they may, with a little manipulation, be traced almost to the point of their insertion.

The muscles last alluded to all originate from the trunk, the more forward cavity of which is known as the chest. There is much dispute concerning the best form of the horse’s thorax; but such a question can only be decided by the uses to which the animal is to be subservient. For instance, below is inserted the illustration of a cart horse with an almost circular chest. Such a form permits the presence of a huge pair of lungs, and favors the increase of weight.

Sufficient oxygen is always present to convert the starch or the sugar of the food into fat: during slow work, enough of atmosphere to vitalize the blood must be inhaled, nor is excessive exertion calculated to materially increase the amount. Where weight is more desired than activity, where propulsion is to be chiefly accomplished by bringing the heavy carcass to bear against the collar, such a make is admirable. All creatures, in which speed is not required, should possess circular chests; for by such a shape the quadrupeds are adapted for the accumulation of fat, and for the performance of slow, of continuous, or of laborious work.

There are, however, numerous animals which are required to possess capability for a “burst;” for the acme of which phrase is embodied in the rush or the closing struggle of the race-course. The creature of speed, therefore, should exhibit rather the deep than the round thorax; for fat is not desired on such an animal. The deep cavity, moreover, admits of an expansibility which is imperative during the extremity of muscular exertion. It is, however, sad to see well-bred animals in and about the metropolis forced to pull carts, for which employment nature has unfitted them. They possess no weight of body with which to move the load. The burden must be propelled by the almost unaided power of the muscles. The limbs, strained by the constant necessity of the position, soon become crippled, while excessive labor causes the flesh to waste; hence the miserable objects which are sometimes witnessed toiling along the thoroughfares of the metropolis.

THE THORAX OF A CART HORSE. THE THORAX OF A BLOOD HORSE.

A A. The capacities of the two chests in the quiet condition. B B, B B. The limits of expansibility in each, when excited. c c, c c. The outside of the coat in the quiet condition. d d, d d. The surface of the body in the excited state. ]

To render the above facts comprehensible to the generality of readers, let it be granted that the lungs of the cart and of the blood horse, when expanded to the uttermost, would occupy the like space. When not excited, or both being of the normal size, the respiratory apparatus of the coarser breed is by far the larger of the two. In the passive condition, the heavy quadruped inhales much more oxygen than is needed to vivify the blood. The excess is, therefore, appropriated by the food and nourishes the frame; hence dray horses have a tendency to become fat. On the contrary, in the ordinary mood, the lungs of the thorough-bred receive scarcely more air than is required to uphold vitality; therefore this kind of quadruped exhibits, as a general rule, no vast disposition toward excessive obesity.

During all quickened movements, however, the action of the lungs and the speed of the circulation are much increased. The impetus given by motion to the vital fluid causes the detention in the lungs to be of a comparatively brief duration. The period of change is shortened; at the same time a larger absorption of the vivifying agent becomes absolutely imperative. The greater depth of chest in the racer admits of a greater change of dimension; then air is inhaled equal to the rapidity of movement. The pace, therefore, can be maintained with comparative ease. But the round form of thorax allows of little enlargement: the demands made by exertion cannot be complied with, and the heavy horse, when hurried, is consequently soon exhausted.

It is not, therefore, the size or dimension of its thorax which fits the steed to the purposes of fleetness. That quality depends on the adaptability of the cavity to the exigencies of excitement; for such purposes, the quadruped with a round chest is not to be preferred. At present there is no instrument by which the motions of the horse’s ribs can be accurately ascertained: thus the reader is forced to guess at an alteration which cannot, under existing circumstances, be regarded with that confidence which is inspired by the knowledge of a fact. A quarter of an inch between the enlargement of the ribs in different animals (supposing the other points equal) should more than determine the winner of a race, since the change which takes place in the blood regulates the other properties of vitality.

The belly and the chest are distinct cavities, although there is communication between the organs of each. Thus the great artery which originates at the heart, travels into the abdomen; while the veins which traverse the larger division also penetrate the thorax. Nevertheless, the contents and the uses of each space are generally distinct. The principal agents of the more forward cavity are the heart and the lungs, the thorax being chiefly sacred to the purposes of respiration and of circulation. The liver, the stomach, the spleen, and the intestines are inclosed within the abdomen, the function of this region being engrossed by the offices of appropriation or by those of nutrition.

Most judges admire the horse which presents a belly apparently well filled by its contents. Certainly this appears to be the soundest of the many prejudices which appertain to horse flesh. The shape of the thorax must, in no unimportant degree, regulate that of the abdomen, the two cavities being only parted by a fleshy screen denominated the diaphragm. The herring-gutted quadruped is commonly as deficient in the respiratory as it is wanting in the nutritive functions. Of course this rule is not absolute; but a capacious thorax is required to counteract any absence in the process of nutrition. The animal which rapidly narrows toward the flank generally purges upon work, is commonly of a washy constitution, and usually possesses a bad appetite. Such a retainer will frequently spoil more fodder than it will consume; while the little eaten shall afford less support than the like amount would yield unto the majority of stabled animals.

Horses of the above conformation are soon found wanting in other respects. Narrowing toward the flank being accompanied with deficient quarters, enables them to slip through their body-clothes, and renders it difficult to retain a saddle in its proper situation. The groom may in vain give extra attention to the fastenings; the dwindling form empowers little motion to displace the tightest of girths. The saddle always has an inclination to glide backward; and the rider, when such an occurrence happens, must be placed in no enviable position.

Objection even to a greater extent is engendered by the opposite kind of abdomen, or by one which is known as “a cow-belly,” or “a pot-belly.” Animals of this make always seem immatured, as though they had been brought into the world before the proper period, or had been forced to perform hard labor at too early an age: their legs are long; their withers are low; their muscles are mean; their chests are narrow, and their countenances are distorted by a querulous expression. These unhappy creatures possess but little strength for work; if made to travel fast, they are speedily blown. In the stable, they are greedy; when out of it, they are vicious. Many of their faults are to be attributed to disease, the digestive functions being invariably disordered. They are worthless, or are “all too feeble” for harness; while the enlarged belly, when favored by the motion of the limbs, renders retention of a saddle an utter impossibility.

The legs of a horse,--these can hardly prove too short; for brevity of limb is always an accompaniment to depth of chest and proportionably powerful quarters. The long leg always attests to the light carcass; hence the motor agency of the limbs is deficient, while the cavities of respiration and of nutrition are necessarily diminished. A narrow thorax almost enforces low withers and an upright shoulder. The bone of the arm, or the humerus, is pushed into an undue slant by the forward position of the blade-bone, or of the scapula. This compels the front leg to stand too far under the body. Such an arrangement favors neither beauty, speed, nor safety; in fact, it is one of the worst forms which the components of the frame are capable of assuming.

The action of the shoulder-blade, during progression, is upward and backward, or it is drawn toward the highest processes of the withers. Low withers are, of course, opposed to extended motion in such a line. The lessened action of the bone necessarily limits the movement of the structures which depend from it, or the action of the humerus is governed by that of the shoulder-blade. The trivial motion permitted by low withers, therefore, limits the advance of the forearm, the parts being, as it were, tied together. The natural carriage of such a malformation is with the head and neck protruded, so as to favor progression by strain upon the cervical muscles. At the same time the body inclines forward, which throws the limbs backward, or out of their proper situations; and this circumstance accounts for animals of this particular make so frequently encountering “accidents.”

The gait characteristic of an upright shoulder is very peculiar. A bad forehand is the most common defect witnessed in London thoroughfares. In the metropolis of the world, it is indeed a rare sight to behold a carriage drawn by a pair of really good animals. The quadrupeds in general use for such purposes are mostly faulty about the shoulders. The forehand is placed upon the trunk in too upright a position. The job master is conscious of this defect. He always endeavors to convince his patrons that such a make is advantageous, where a creature is designed for harness. Possibly the tradesman might succeed in persuading his customers into a false belief, were not prejudice opposed to his suggestions. Ladies admire high action in the steeds attached to their vehicles; this is the kind of step which most of the horses just described are incapable of long exhibiting.

DIAGRAM, SHOWING THE NATURAL ACTION APPERTAINING TO A STRAIGHT SHOULDER, AND ALSO ILLUSTRATING THE CHANGE SOMETIMES OCCASIONED BY THE UNSCRUPULOUS EMPLOYMENT OF THE BIT OR OF THE BEARING-REIN. ]

Art or cruelty, however, can partially amend the faulty motion of the limbs. Force the head into an unnatural attitude by the unscrupulous employment of the bit or of the bearing-rein; retain the neck erect, without regard to the cramp induced, or heed of the strain cast upon the muscles,--and the torture, although the life be shortened and the safety of the owner endangered, nevertheless may occasion the feet to be raised during progression. This fact is illustrated in the following engraving. The natural mode of going is indicated by the letters A A; the possible change of form is to be seen in the parts distinguished as B B, although the action there depicted certainly displays a most unusual degree of amendment, to induce which must shorten the existence.

Any such improvement is always procured at a vast personal risk; for the head, being raised, partially throws the eyes out of use. It also impedes the circulation, ruins the mouth, distorts the body, and deranges the breathing. All these evils are inflicted to obtain the kind of pace which is never natural, but which closely resembles the sort of step that is characteristic of blindness in the horse. Few of the animals, thus treated, live to descend very low in the scale of equine existence. They mostly perish young; but the reader may recognize them drawing the broughams of gentility, and too often presenting one of the cramped, forced, and uneasy paces which are depicted below; for into such kinds of action all upon service ultimately subside.

On the other hand, the animal with a deep chest and with high withers, almost as a necessary adjunct, possesses a slanting shoulder; or, at all events, this probability is favored by that particular formation. Such an arrangement of parts must be accompanied by an upright position of the humerus and the advanced location of the fore limb. This conformation is bettered, materially, by an arched crest and a head “well set on.” Unfortunately, these latter points are seldom encountered, the proper disposition of the fore quarter being rarely attended with the last-named grace.

Such horses, however, Stubbs, the animal painter, used to delineate. Either the artist was particularly fortunate in his models, or beauty has been sacrificed in the anxiety to breed other properties. Such horses appear to have been common in England when the racer was compelled to possess endurance, and if report be truth, the last animals exhibited a greater speed than their descendants can display. Hunters were formerly something better than the rejected of the course; they could show a beauty equal to their strength. Creatures with the forehand such as has been described, are not only more pleasant to contemplate, but they are also capable of working with far less exhaustion to the system.

With a front limb of this nature, the movements of the leg are regulated by that of the shoulder. When the blade-bone is drawn upward, the humerus leaves its almost erect position, and assumes a forward inclination. This causes the arm to be advanced, and propels the leg and foot. Thus the movement of a part governs the motion of the whole: a grace or harmony of action is the result. The various components of the member change their relative positions to one another without effort, but with evident intention; all parts of the limb are simultaneously advanced. The work is not cast upon one set of muscles to the injury of another region. A well-made animal is one perfect whole, and formerly was common throughout the land. People may sigh that such quadrupeds are now lost to the nation: this regret, however, does not accord with the folly that upholds the racing mania, which has engulfed the once-prized native breed of English horses.

The articulated skeletons which are exhibited in museums present but poor resemblances of the living framework as it is arranged by the hand of nature. In these artificial preparations, the fore limbs are always straight, as are the supports of a kitchen table. But contemplate the living example. The positive perpendicular is never observed. The member abounds in gracefully swelling prominences and admirably poised inclines. The chest may be wide; but the hoofs are placed close together. Such a necessity renders an erect line an impossibility. Try the same rule in another direction. Let a plummet be dropped from the point of the shoulder of a living and well-made animal; it will mark the limit to which the toe is extended when the healthy horse is resting the limb. Such a fact proves the sheer upright form of the member to be an unnatural distortion and a positive impossibility.

The importance of the shoulder and of the arm bone having been enlarged upon, there remains to direct the reader’s attention toward that which in general acceptance constitutes the forearm, as well as the knee, the leg or the shin, the pastern and the foot. Where the limb quits the trunk, it should be characterized by muscular developments, since at this place resides the chief of that power by which the lower portions of the member are directed. The flesh should bulge forth, and cannot be too abundant; for a thin forearm is incompatible with goodness in a horse.

The point of the elbow should be prominently emphasized, as this bone affords a leverage whence many influential muscles originate, and which some of the principal flexor agents directly operate upon. Toward the knee the swelling should gradually subside, leaving upon the surface of the joint a broad, clean, and firm appearance. At the back of the knee there should stand forth, or rather should stick out, an osseous point, the size of which is of every value. Its aspect may not please the inexperienced fancies of the boy; but the uses of this development are, in no little degree, governed by its magnitude. It affords a point of insertion to the short flexors of the limb, as well as gives shelter to the perforans and perforatus tendons in their passage toward the pastern and the foot. Its magnitude, therefore, not only favors muscular action, but also indicates the dimension of those important structures which this bone protects.

A LONG AND SLANTING PASTERN.

A NATURAL PASTERN.

AN UPRIGHT PASTERN.

AN OVERSHOT PASTERN.]

The forearm should be long; the shin ought to be comparatively short. The reach depends on the first, the length of which secures an extra amount of motor activity. No muscles of importance are located upon the shin: bone and tendon are the principal components of this region. The part should not be absolutely straight, for such a form is incompatible with all idea of living beauty; but at the same time it ought to present no obvious inequalities or sudden enlargements. The bone should be compact, giving to this portion of the limb, when viewed from the front, almost the appearance of being deficient in bulk; but when regarded from the side, the lower part of the leg cannot be too broad; for breadth and strength are here synonymous.

The above rule applies with equal stringency to both legs,--to the hind limb below the hock as well as the more forward member from the knee downward. Each should be thin, when viewed from the front. Neither can well be too deep, when seen from the side. Both should appear solid, and each should feel almost of metallic hardness. The pastern joint should not present a level surface, when viewed laterally; and as it proceeds downward to join the foot, a graduated enlargement should exist.

Much comment is usually indulged upon the horse’s pastern. The degree in which this part may or may not slope, has been authoritatively defined. The reader will best judge of these opinions, by considering the purposes for which the pastern was created. Its intention is to endow the tread with elasticity. The fetlock of a racer, when the animal trots, may be seen to touch the earth every time the weight rests upon the foot: nevertheless, the thorough-bred has, during the contention, to endure the very excess of action. There must, therefore, be something erroneous in the popular judgment which connects weakness with the motion of this part, or no racer could ever reach the goal; and if a quadruped does occasionally break down, the likelihood of such a misfortune is not regulated or to be foretold by the pliability of the pastern joint. However, that the reader may estimate the value of the prejudice, various pasterns, designed according to the general phraseology, have been submitted to his inspection.

To enable the purchaser to arrive at a sound decision, it is necessary to state that the inclination of this region is governed by the major flexor tendons which are situated underneath or behind them. Their slanting, therefore, is regulated by no peculiarity in the forms of the bones themselves, but is controlled by and dependent upon the condition of another structure. A short, upright pastern, if it can bear any evidence at all, testifies to a stubborn and unyielding state of the great flexor muscles, the weight being then thrown upon the osseous supports. The play of the pastern denotes nothing more than the healthy elasticity of the flesh upon the tendon proper to which the osseous structures repose. The bones have no motor power belonging to themselves. The upright and the overshot pastern suggest no change in the more solid frame; but such alterations prove that excessive work has strained the great flexors of the limb, and destroyed the inherent property of elasticity with which every muscle is endowed by nature. The burden being then supported by an osseous pillar instead of an elastic band, of course jar or concussion ensues upon the abnormal change.

Thus, alteration in the natural position of an oblique bone is of great importance to a purchaser; and to judge properly of the pastern joint, the substance swelling forth beneath the elbow must be regarded. Should this portion of the body be mean or wanting in development, hard work will probably induce it to become rigid, or labor may, ultimately, cause the pastern joint to shoot forward and out of its proper situation.

The flexor tendon likewise influences another part. The perforans is inserted into the sole of the coffin-bone, or into the bone of the foot. The direction in which the toes point is, therefore, regulated by a substance so far distant that the attempt to connect the two organs may, to the uninformed mind, seem somewhat ridiculous. Yet, the statement being correct, the fact renders the position of the elbow of more importance; for according to the situation of that bone the hoofs will be directed. Thus, an ulna or an elbow which is drawn toward the trunk will be attended with a toe inclined outward. When the bone turns from the body, the forward portion of the hoof is directed inward. When the framework is properly constructed, the hoofs point forward; for horses’ hoofs are liable to those derangements which the human foot exhibits, and generally with like results. Only, in man, striking one leg against the other, during progression, is not attended with the unfortunate consequences which such an occurrence often will induce when this accident happens to the quadruped.

HOOFS POINTING FORWARD.

HOOFS POINTING OUTWARD.

HOOFS POINTING INWARD.]

By the pasterns recently exhibited it will have been observed that the inclination of the bones influences the slant of the hoof. The two structures are so connected one with the other that neither can be independent, for the direction of the pastern, of course, determines the nature of the weight imposed upon the foot. Thus, should the foot receive more than a normal pressure, this circumstance, by throwing the weight upon the bones, occasions the muscles to contract, and produces upright or overshot fetlock-joint. Nevertheless, the hoof is operated upon by other agency. Diseased action will also interfere with the growth of its outward covering. The member may, under such injurious excitement, when long continued, eventually become deformed.

The place of birth also influences the horn. Thus, a quadruped brought up on the fens of Lincolnshire, generally displays a flat sole, a weak, a low, and a slanting crust. The horse whose native land is dry or sandy, mostly exhibits the hoof high in the quarter and thick in its incasement. The creature with feet of the intermediate sort, which a few years ago were esteemed the model form, is generally the inhabitant of a moist, but not of a wet district. The horn, therefore, is indirect evidence of the rearing; and the author has now to consider how far its condition can, by itself, be regarded as a positive proof of any other fact.

There is one defect not generally observed, but which should always be studied in every examination of the feet. It may surprise the reader, when the author declares it to be very far from an uncommon circumstance to encounter a horse with odd hoofs, or with feet of different sizes. Such a peculiarity is totally independent of the defective inclination of the toes, and may be seen in horn of any possible condition, or in feet of any variety of form.

An animal becomes lame in the foot. If the lameness is removed in reasonable time, the affection disappears, and leaves no trace behind it. But let it continue for months, and during such a period the sufferer will throw little or no weight upon the diseased member. The part will be rested. The purpose or function of the organ will be counteracted by the will of the animal. The consequence of long disuse will be a proportionate decrease in size. Upon recovery, the loss of bulk is seldom restored; for if the foot is then employed, so also is the sound one; and the action being equal, of course it does not particularly affect one extremity, but operates on both alike.

The difference in the feet may not be so startling as to enforce attention to the deformity. It is seldom of this nature. Most probably it will require some discrimination to detect it. In the last engraving, the author endeavored to depict the defect as it was generally exhibited. None of the hoofs there delineated positively match, though very probably the reader had not remarked their differences. However, the slightest disagreement is an accepted proof that disease has been present,--at what time, whether recently or long ago, of what nature, whether structural or functional, the examiner cannot tell: he, however, assumes lameness has existed, has endured for some period, and he fears that the organ which has been afflicted may retain a liability to repeated visitations of a similar misfortune.

The so-called model foot is very liable to change, and not less likely to exhibit disease. It is very pretty to look at; but it does not, as a rule, undergo much work without alteration. This opinion, however, must be regarded only as announcing a general law; for though the intelligent Mr. Bracy Clark puts forth engravings illustrative of the effects which work produces upon the model foot, nevertheless the writer of the present volume has seen hoofs of this description which have, without apparent injury, endured constant shoeing, as well as perpetual battering upon the dreaded London pavement.

The slanting crust, weak heels, and low soles are, however, not to be commended. These are among the worst points which the equine form can present, and they are too commonly the forerunners of sad internal disease, as ossified cartilages, sandcrack, pumice foot, etc.

After long reflection, the author must express a preference for the high or the stubborn hoof. When doing this, he is consciously opposing his unsupported opinion against the firmly and repeatedly expressed judgment of his professional brethren. He therefore can ask no man to agree with his decision; but he humbly requests the reader to peruse the grounds of his conviction, before hastily condemning its declaration.

The horse is a native of a dry and an arid soil. Such a region induces that which the inhabitants of this country stigmatize as an excess of horn or an abnormally high sole. This kind of hoof therefore would appear to be natural to the animal: at all events, such a foot must have been general before the invention of iron shoes. Moreover, when the immense weight of the creature’s carcass is considered, and the manner in which bearing is increased by speed is also properly regarded, a necessity for the stoutest hoof must be fully apparent.

In addition to the above inferences, the author may advance his own observation, carefully made through a number of years: that all animals exhibiting strong crusts are not, necessarily, cripples; but that the creature with such a development of horn is in consequence less, infinitely less, liable to pedal derangements. The contrary conclusion has been upheld, because most men thought the excess of horn must check expansion, and also severely pinch the internal structures. With regard to the last deduction, all outward developments are produced by and are governed by the inward organs which these shelter. The secreting member may be soft, and the secreted substance may be hard; still, by a wise provision of nature, the tender structure rules the insensitive material which it produces. Therefore the horn cannot press upon or pinch the internal portions of the foot, any more than the skull can compress the healthy brain which it protects.

Then as to the supposed want of expansibility. The hoof may appear stubborn when between the human fingers; but while supporting the body of a horse, it is exposed to the operation of a force altogether greater than any which man is able to exert. The question therefore is not whether the hoof is very yielding, but whether it is so obdurate as to resist the huge weight of the animal when aiding the mechanical force of speed and the vital action of muscular power.

The author, however, while making the above declaration, supposes form to be united with stoutness. Where the heels have become “wired in,” and the crust has assumed the upright figure, the internal structures must be in an altered condition, and the points of bearing for the different portions of the limb must be entirely changed. The quarters in the last kind of foot are, frequently, remarkably stubborn. They are rather inclined to crack than to expand. Such parts will not, by their innate elasticity, fly inward on the leg being raised from the ground, and thus regulate the amount of blood which shall be poured into the hoof; neither will they expand when the weight is cast upon the foot, and thus allow free egress to the current which is violently expelled in consequence of the superimposed burden driving the fluid upward.

The upright hoof and narrow heels are, generally, all but unyielding. They have lost their natural function, and the harmony of the whole is destroyed. In consequence, the blood, instead of being expelled from the hoof, cannot escape from the pressure of the bony structures. The vessels within which the fluid circulates are not formed to sustain uninjured so vast a burden. They rupture under the weight; hence this peculiar form of foot is commonly accompanied with corns. Therefore, because corns are a disease, and because disease, being once generated, is not in its course or duration to be prognosticated with certainty, an upright hoof and wired in quarters are decided unsoundness: although stoutness, simply considered, is rather a recommendation than a defect.

The author may not dwell at greater length on this portion of his subject; but those who desire further information may with advantage consult Miles’s works upon the horse’s foot, which are the best, the cheapest, and the most lucid books upon this topic in the English language. They are written in a style which the most unlettered may comprehend; but when recommending them, the author, in his own justification, may state that the views therein expressed frequently differ from those opinions which are contained in the present volume.

Looking back upon such portions of the frame as have formed the subject of the late remarks, there are certain points which are invariably present in every well-made animal. A very broad, full chest is advantageous for slow work; but for slow work only. Where speed or activity is desired, depth of thorax is indispensable; yet the cavity should not be narrow or the sides flat; while the exterior of the ribs should apparently encircle sufficient space. The general contour should, moreover, excite no idea of fixedness: the part should convey a notion of its capability for easy and for rapid alteration of magnitude.

The abdomen should neither be large nor small. The exhibition of either failing announces a radical defect. The belly ought rather to gracefully continue the line of the chest, than by its protuberance, or the reverse, to enforce its existence specially upon the notice of the spectator. All may be considered right when the form elicits no remark; but when it challenges observation, the fact does not indicate that everything is as the purchaser could desire.

The position and the muscularity of the shoulder are the main points in the forehand. With respect to the limbs, these should leave the body as though they were parts of its substance. They can hardly be too large where they emerge from the trunk; and the forearm can scarcely be too long. The knee-joint should be broad and flat; while the bone which projects forth posteriorly should be well pronounced and evenly situated. The shin should be hard to the touch, and broad, when viewed laterally. The leg should seem straight and strong; the feet standing close together, and the toes pointing in a forward direction, rather than inclining to the outward or to the inward direction.

Such is a general view of organs, all of which are of equal importance. Breathing and digestion are such vital functions, it would be supererogation did the author pretend to point out their importance. It may be otherwise with the fore limbs. Their use is not popularly comprehended; those members are exposed to numerous accidents and liable to many diseases. This predisposition is generally explained, by saying they are nearer to the heart than the hind legs are, and the straighter form is more favorable to a descent of the arterial current than is the angularity of the posterior extremities; therefore this portion of the frame is more open to acute affections.

The facts stated are certainly correct. So is the less freedom allowed to the forelegs, by confinement in and fastening the head to a manger in a stall. Such, however, is not the whole truth. There are other causes in operation. The province of the fore limb is to uphold the trunk. Thus, at all times, the member has to support no inconsiderable burden; but when that load is increased by the weight of a rider or is augmented by the drag of the collar, the tug of the shafts, and the generally pendent position of the head, the reader may conjecture the force with which the limb must be driven to the earth, especially during any rapid increase of motion.

The continued battering to which the leg is subjected naturally exposes it to much suffering, which the comparative fixedness in the stable greatly aggravates. As the uses are severe, so are its afflictions painful; and it hazards nothing to assert that very much of the sorrow which visits the animal is dependent upon the diseases or the accidents which are inseparable from these forward supports of the body and of the load.

When, however, the person called upon to exercise a judgment in the purchase of a nag is so new to the subject as to be incapable of forming an opinion, there is one primary test which seldom deceives; and upon the evidence thus evolved the merest tyro is fully qualified to pronounce. Let such a man mount the animal, and, when seated in the saddle, he can surely decide whether he appears to be close upon the neck or placed far behind upon the back. A well-made animal, by the inclination of the shoulder and by the amplitude of the withers, forbids the forward location of its rider; whereas a worthless quadruped, by the lowness of the first dorsal spines and the upright position of the blade-bones, allows the rider almost to rest upon its neck--thereby, because of the greater weight to be supported by the front limbs, increasing the natural liability of the forward members to exhibit disease.

The reason why such a formation should be specially noticed is, upon reflection, made apparent. The hind legs, by their greater motor power, always have a disposition to throw the weight upon the forward member. When this tendency is augmented by the burden on the back, the consequence must be a destruction of any approach to an equilibrium.

The horse’s body is, by nature, given four props--one at each corner of the trunk. But when a human load is lodged almost over the fore limb; when the front leg is placed far behind the chest; and when the head swings in advance,--all approach to a proportionate amount of burden is destroyed. The forward extremities then take a position almost in the middle of the substance, a proportionate incumbrance being removed from the posterior extremities. The hind members have less to do, and excessive duty is imposed upon the weaker organs, the motor machine being deprived of safety during progression.

While on the back, the rider should ascertain the shoulders are of equal bulk, or have not suffered injury, and that the trunk is sufficiently developed to afford a secure grip for the thighs of the master. Many animals are so narrow as to necessitate sensible muscular exertion on the part of an equestrian, and thus materially to detract from the pleasure of horse exercise. This matter is the more important, because stoutness of the body allows a fair inference to be drawn as to the substance of the haunches. It is true, no absolute law may therefrom be deduced; but as expectation is warranted, the fact should always be remarked.

The haunch is that portion of the frame upon which a capability for work is chiefly dependent. This region, therefore, should appear to be the embodiment of strength. It should not seem soft, or invite those pats which inexperienced horsemen are fond of administering to this portion of the body, but the aspect ought rather to suggest firmness and power; for here resides the force which must propel the load or direct the bound. Always choose an animal with good haunches, and invariably regard the position of the tail; as the situation of the dock, when on a line with the back-bone, denotes the greatest possible length, and therefore the largest amount of muscular activity to be present.

Never purchase a horse which is recommended as fully equal to carry your weight; for the dealer who asserts this is, by his interest in the sale, incapacitated from forming a just opinion. But ostensibly appear to seek a horse for a friend--never for yourself--and state the nominal owner to ride at least four if not six stone heavier than the would-be purchaser. There is a saying, that an animal will run away with too light a load; but that assertion is mere nonsense. Most vicious quadrupeds are weakly creatures. The powerful frame is generally united to an even temper. Strength does not endanger the female equestrian, although ladies generally are mounted upon the best-made, the strongest, and the most valuable steeds. Indeed, this argument is never urged, save when a gentleman hesitates to accept a weakly quadruped, or desires to obtain the one which the dealer is not very anxious should be purchased.

In illustration of this subject an engraving is inserted, which represents better-made quarters than are commonly beheld on a native or coarsely-bred animal. But the reader can hardly fail to remark that though the developments are not deficient in width, yet the general aspect rather denotes softness than expresses strength or suggests determination. The tail is well set on for this kind of quadruped; still, the point of the rump-bone is not even indicated. The spectator must guess at its precise location, as he cannot, by the unaided vision, detect its exact situation. Bulk is not absent, yet that which should be its attendant is not prominent. The bones of the leg seem long, but the hocks are not remarkable for size or conspicuous for form. The limbs are not moved with that independence of action which gives to the step of the horse its air of resolution, but they are advanced as though one was timid of proceeding too far without the other.

Yet, the inquirer may journey long and travel far before he will meet the equal of the quarters here depicted. The generality of these parts, on the animals of the coarser breed, are much narrower; the tail is seldom encountered springing from a position so near to the level of the spine; while, short as the extent of the posterior muscles may appear in the previous illustration, these are frequently to be seen of more circumscribed dimensions.

In contrast to the foregoing, the accompanying engraving depicts the quarters of a blood horse. In this illustration, symmetry and beauty are equally preserved; but, with these qualities, also are blended other attributes, which ennoble and elevate the object. Strength, power, and determination are impressed upon the image. Every muscle goes direct to the part on which it operates. The posterior line, on being traced from the dock to the leg, does not seem to hesitate between the bone of the member and the stifle-joint. The leg itself is thicker, but its greater substance depends upon the presence of muscle. The hock is cleaner, and uses of the part are better characterized. The calcis, as the backward projection is technically termed, stands forth prominently and affords the greater leverage for the motor agents to act upon.

When the quarters of the two breeds are contrasted, the difference is found to be extreme; the pervading attributes of each characterizes the innate qualities of the animal to which the part belonged. The distinctions which divide the two are by these members well indicated. There was, some time back, a loud discussion as to what kind of horse was best fitted for ordinary purposes. The old staging days should have settled such a question; for then fast coaches found the employment of the nobler quadrupeds to their interest. Where slow and heavy propulsion is desired, the coarser animal is infinitely to be preferred. For all the gentler purposes of society, the thorough-bred is, in the author’s opinion, to be recommended. Only, these fine creatures should be properly reared; they ought not, as now, to be produced with all the haste of greed, and cast upon the general public when found unsuited to the purposes for which they were generated.

It is offensive, if not painful, to hear persons speak of certain horses as though particular quadrupeds were created only for special uses. A good horse is fit for nearly every purpose; but such an animal is generally employed for the saddle. A thorough-bred, with lofty and well-developed quarters, is too valuable not to be appropriated by the race-course. A blood, with so much bulk and stoutness as to indicate the qualities of endurance rather than of speed, is always destined to become a hunter. Horses of the purer breed are supposed not well suited for gentlemen’s hacks. Good animals of this description are only too valuable for common purposes; but no creature is, by its intelligence, its activity, its gracefulness or its beauty, so admirably qualified for the companionship of man as the noblest type of the equine race.

The manner in which the racer trots is asserted to express the action which is natural to all of the thorough-breed. Before the reader agrees to that assertion, he should remember the trot is not a natural pace, nor one which the racer is broken to exhibit. Seen upon the course, the foot evidently moves too near the earth to clear the ruts of most English highways. Yet, as there shown, the motion is not to be despised. During it, at each step the limbs are extended; the reach is admirable, and affords a far better foundation for excellence in a hack than the up-and-down pounding motion which is so highly esteemed by the ignorant.

The greatest possible speed, with the least possible amount of exertion, is secured by the thorough-bred trot. The ground is covered, while the pace is easy and pleasant to the rider. It is very opposite to that which medical gentlemen occasionally recommend as a “hard-trotting horse.” A child might sit upon the back of a well-bred steed. The author recollects to have only seen one animal of this description employed as the riding companion of a gentleman. The master (a northern nobleman) was evidently proud of his possession; for the hack abounded in energy and with fire. The life never appeared fresher in a colt; but, on inspecting the teeth, the writer was pleasantly surprised to behold indications which denoted that at least twelve years had been passed. The following illustration will suggest to the inexperienced reader the more striking peculiarities which characterize the well-bred action.

Any quadruped is supposed suited for the collar when it displays points which unfit it for the saddle. A prime saddle horse, however, always makes the best harness animal; only, it is considered too valuable for such a purpose. There is but one law which is absolute with draught horses. In them, the forelegs are pardoned a few faults; but the hind quarters should always be powerful. That is desirable in all quadrupeds; for draught of every kind it is essential; it should never be overlooked, or the want of such a property ever be pardoned.

There is another point of importance. Any gentleman purchasing a draught horse--no matter whether for cart, for carriage, or for phaeton--be it for any kind of vehicle, he should be certain, before the transfer is concluded, that the new possession stands high enough. Nothing looks worse than small horses before a tall carriage. The living power may be in excess--it can hardly appear too mighty--but an inch below the requisite size gives to the most elegant and the newest of “turn outs” a shabby and a mean appearance. The draught may be light; the horses may not be overweighted; still, no fact or knowledge can reconcile the eye to the general effect, where animals are small for the machine to which they are harnessed.

Of recent years there has been displayed a desire to infuse the Eastern blood into the heavier breed which is native to this country. The desire was commendable; but its gratification has led only to evil. It has enabled the dregs of the race-course to be palmed off upon the public. A thin and lanky offshoot of thorough-bred stock can be of no value. These things should not be bought by gentlemen for any kind of service. The time has come, when it is simple prudence that the public should refuse longer to absorb the cast-offs of the stud farm. No doubt, before the breeding of blood stock became a general practice, the infusion of Eastern fire and activity was a national boon; for a reference to engravings of a few years back exhibits the animal suited only for a plow used as ladies’ palfreys. The following copy from a figure, presented in the famous folio work by a former Duke of Newcastle, will give the reader some notion of the kind of horse once chosen to carry the fairest portion of creation in the British isles.

From the above illustration, which may be well supposed to embody the height of fashion and the cream of style shortly after the accession of Charles the Second, the reader can imagine the practical knowledge possessed by those writers who speak of James the First as having greatly improved the native breed of horses, and quote the benefits conferred upon the national race by the more temperate but equally determined enthusiasm of Cromwell, operating in the same direction.

At this place, the reader must have patience while the method of judging the limbs is pointed out. When the dealer exhibits an animal, the customer’s eye always should endeavor to ascertain the bulk or substance of the creature which he is expected to purchase. To do this, let the eye be directed toward the chest, to ascertain if the forelegs are separated by any breadth of thorax, or whether they spring from the body almost from the same point. This decided, a glance may be given to the line of the forelegs; these parts also can be viewed as the gentleman passes backward. Having reached the last situation, he observes if the thighs are large and fleshy, keeping the legs well asunder; also, whether the hocks are rightly placed, are huge, and are cleanly shaped.

Such remarks are important, since the disposition to cut is generally decided by the width of the horse’s trunk. Any deficiency in this respect indicates weakness, as well as declares a general unfitness for severe labor. This circumstance being observed, it is usual for the horse to be run up and down the ride. While the limbs are in motion, the spectator should notice the peculiarities of their carriage. A flexion of the front shin to the outer side warrants a belief in the existence of a splint. When the hind limb is not properly flexed, but the toe is allowed to graze the ground, it is a positive proof that the hock is disabled by the presence of a spavin.

A worse evil, however, is, when the forelegs, during progression, crossing each other, the trot becomes a sort of “hand-over-hand” pace. This kind of action is accompanied by “speedy cut,” or by a wound made upon one leg, immediately below the knee, with the shoe on the opposite foot. That defect justifies an instant rejection; for such a liability is incompatible with safety, as the blow too often brings the animal and its rider to the earth. The legs being close is the cause of “brushing” or of “cutting,”--a most troublesome defect, which inflicts a wound considerably nearer to the ground than speedy cut.

Before purchase, the hair on the inner side of the legs should be carefully examined. If a cicatrix or a bare spot is discovered near to the seat of cutting; if any paint or coloring matter can be detected upon the part; or if the hair does not lie perfectly smooth upon the place of injury,--have nothing to do with the animal. It is quite true that most fresh and nearly all young horses will cut--others strike only toward the end of a long journey; but it is also true that particular horses, however fresh or however tired they may be, never strike or cut. The quadruped which a gentleman desires, is one that does not contain evidences of a liability to accident or to disease. He wishes for a sound animal; and one disposed to strike certainly cannot, in the author’s opinion, be so esteemed. Every man wants a horse for service; but the creature which may at any moment receive a wound that shall incapacitate, assuredly cannot be esteemed a serviceable possession, in any meaning of the words.

While examining the legs, the gentleman should also notice the shoes upon the different feet. If these are rusty, the fact demonstrates that the horse has been wearing wet swabs, and has been long stationary in the stable. The circumstance is suspicious. In horse dealing a justifiable suspicion is always acted upon as an established fact. If the shoes are of rude make and much worn, it looks badly; and though it is no recommendation, it justifies no inference. But if the shoes be thicker at one part than at another; if the horse, being a nag, should wear very high calkins; if the toe be shortened, or one side of the metal is obviously narrowed,--it denotes precautions against clicking and against overreaching: the first being a most audible annoyance, which may lead to the forcible tearing away a fore shoe; and the last causing a fearful, a terrible, and an incapacitating wound upon the heel of the foreleg. Also, should the toe of the hind shoe be ground down, while the heel exhibits no obvious wear, the fact demonstrates the existence of a spavin. Either clicking, overreaching, or spavin is legitimate cause for rejection.

The reader, from a perusal of the foregoing remarks, will comprehend a few of the difficulties which beset the purchaser of a horse; and these may warn him, in some measure, of the dangers that surround a person so engaged. The author is a veterinary surgeon, of some experience; but he would be very sorry to buy a steed for himself upon his unsupported opinion. He would always have the animal examined by a professional man ere the purchase was concluded. How greatly, therefore, must the general public stand in need of such protection! Especially when the known hazard of the transaction and the confusion necessarily accompanying a direct personal interest in the business help to confound the intellect and to overpower the judgment!

All persons complain of the roguery that is mixed up with horse dealing. The complaint is just; but it is not just that the public should vent it. It is the general abuse and the inhuman treatment to which animal life is subjected that renders such practices necessary. The cruelty and the roguery are associated as closely as cause and effect. Let the provocative be discarded, and its result, of course, must cease. But no man should blame the conduct which his own deeds have willfully generated. To hurt and to injure a patient and an obedient animal is a positive sin,--a violation of the trust confided by the Creator to the creature. To defraud, in a money transaction, is simply a crime,--an offense committed upon the laws by man established over man. Then, what right has he who violates one of the ordinizations of nature, to point at and to sigh over the person who merely breaks a human institution?

Christianity, if its benefits were exemplified in man’s actions toward the creatures living under his dominion, would immediately operate upon society. The horse, under better treatment, would of course not be liable to those injuries and accidents which roguery in the dealer merely endeavors to conceal. There would be no occasion for cheating when the creature exhibited no scar or defect which the seller was interested to hide or to deny. Thus one stain upon the present civilization would be abolished; for, notwithstanding the numerous assertions to the contrary, the author has yet to see the man who practiced dishonesty from a sheer love of iniquity.

The well-to-do may lament the immorality of the class below them; but if gentility would look less leniently upon itself, probably the exhibition of crime might be viewed as no more than the apex of a pyramid whose base is deeply planted in the frailties which are common to general society.