CHAPTER XLIII. The First Appearance of Syphilis in Europe As an Epidemic

THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF SYPHILIS IN EUROPE AS AN EPIDEMIC DISEASE.--MEDICAL JOURNALISM.--THE BEGINNINGS OF A MODERN PHARMACOPOEIA.--ITINERANT LITHOTOMISTS

Toward the end of the fifteenth and during the early part of the sixteenth centuries accounts concerning syphilis began to be published in the medical literature of Spain, Italy and France. The word “syphilis,” it is true, does not appear in any of these records, for it had not yet been coined; but the accounts themselves leave no room for doubt that this was the disease to which the authors of these records referred. The prevailing views with regard to the origin and nature of syphilis differed somewhat in the three countries named. In Spain, for example, it was a common belief that the disease originated in an unfavorable conjunction of the stars and yet at the same time it was generally admitted that it was a disease which belonged in the category of luxuries and might be avoided if one were careful not to have intercourse with dissolute women. For a brief period of time there were physicians in all three of the Latin countries who maintained that syphilis had been imported, in the first instance, from America by the men who made the voyage with Columbus and by the earliest Spanish explorers of South America; but it was soon shown that this theory was not compatible with certain known facts--such, for example, as the published reports made by the Spanish physicians Pintor and Torrella, who describe cases of syphilis which they had treated prior to 1493 (the year in which the first discoverers returned from America). In Italy, according to Giovanni da Vigo, the author of an excellent treatise on surgery (“Practica in arte chirurgica copiosa,” Rome, 1514), the disease was first observed in Europe in December, 1494, soon after the arrival of Charles the Eighth’s (France) army at Naples; and only a short time elapsed before there developed, as a result of this great accession of French soldiers, a veritable epidemic of what then began to be known quite generally as “morbus gallicus” or “the French disease.” The King himself, it is stated, was among the number of those who contracted the infection.

So far as I am able to discover, the term “syphilis” was first introduced into medical literature by Fracastoro, the distinguished physician of Verona, who published in 1530 a Latin poem bearing the title: “Syphilis sive morbus gallicus.” These verses were received everywhere with great favor, were translated into several modern languages, and speedily put an end forever to the employment of the insulting term “morbus gallicus.”

A few more words with reference to the origin and distribution of syphilis throughout the world may not seem inappropriate in this place. J. K. Proksch, the author of the most recent history of this disease, says it has been fully proved that syphilis existed among the inhabitants of India as long ago as during the Middle Ages, and he adds that the evidence thus far collected justifies the further belief that it was not an uncommon malady among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and even among the Babylonians and Assyrians. Doubtless a good deal of what was called “leprosy” in early times was in reality syphilis. Another syphilographer--Raphael Finckenstein--makes the following sensible remarks about the efforts that have been made to ascertain the precise date when this disease first appeared in Europe:--

It is just as foolish to suppose that the date of the first appearance of syphilis may be discovered as it is to hope that the disease will ever entirely disappear. As long as wealth and idleness continue to exist, as long as there are men who remain unmarried and women whose moral character is of a yielding nature, and as long as it is not possible for the police to creep into every nook and corner, just so long will licentiousness and indulgence in fleshly lusts continue to disturb the peace of the community. These are the conditions necessary to the development and spread of syphilis.

Some account of the treatment of this form of venereal disease comes next in order. It is commonly believed, says the author just quoted, that it was from the Spanish physicians of the sixteenth century that we learned how to treat syphilis by the methodical employment of mercurial preparations. (See footnote at the bottom of page 542.) He adds that there was published by Juan Almenar at Venice, in 1502, a book which bears the title: “A treatise on the Morbus Gallicus, in which it is demonstrated how the patient may be treated in such a successful manner that the disease will never return, nor will any objectionable lesions develop in the mouth; and yet, during the progress of the treatment, the patient is not required to remain in bed.” The author of this book, who was a resident of Valencia, Spain, was a man of noble birth. His treatise passed through eight successive editions, the last of which was printed at Basel in 1536. Almenar’s plan of treatment was to employ mercurial inunctions in such moderate doses as not to induce salivation. If, at the end of a few days, he saw evidences of an approach of this symptom, he substituted baths and evacuant remedies (rhubarb and senna) for a short time, and also prescribed a more nourishing diet and the taking of various internal remedies. Then, later, the inunctions were resumed. The exact duration of such a course of treatment is not stated. So far as I am able to judge from the account given by Finckenstein, Almenar found it necessary in some cases to repeat the series of mercurial inunctions as many as four times. His aim, in other words, was to accomplish a radical cure of the disease, whereas his contemporaries, who were mainly ignorant and uneducated physicians, were satisfied to carry out a purely symptomatic treatment. Morejon, the historian of Spanish medicine, expresses the belief that Almenar was the first to use steam baths in the treatment of syphilis. Both Hensler and Simon, the best modern authorities with regard to the history of syphilis, agree that Almenar’s inunction method of treating this disease forms, notwithstanding its crudeness in certain respects, the basis of all modern methods of the same general character. Unfortunately, the physicians of a later period did not follow the relatively mild and safe inunction method advocated by Almenar, but so modified it for the worse that it became a common thing for men to say that the cure was worse than the disease.

A Few Special Advances Worthy of Note.--The beginnings of medical journalism belong to the second half of the seventeenth century. In 1665, for example, there appeared for the first time, a medical article in the “Journal des Scavans,” and during the same year similar articles were printed in the “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.” According to August Hirsch the earliest periodical that was devoted entirely to the interests of the medical profession was the “Journal des découvertes en médecine,” which was first published in 1679 and continued, in 1680, under the title of “Le Temple d’Esculape.” Then followed soon afterward: “Le Journal des Nouvelles Découvertes en Médecine” (1681–1683); “Le Mercure Savant” (1684); “Le Zodiacus Medico-Gallicus” (1680–1685), which was published in Latin in Geneva, by Bonet; etc.

In addition to the more important advances in anatomy and physiology that have already been mentioned on previous pages, the following deserve to receive at least a passing notice: In the department of anatomy and physiology, William Briggs (1642–1704), one of the physicians of St. Thomas’ Hospital, London, published at Cambridge in 1676, under the title of “Ophthalmographia,” a most important contribution to the anatomy and physiology of the eye; and there were four other English anatomists who, during the seventeenth century, gained well-merited credit by the original work which they did in the fields of anatomy and physiology--viz., Thomas Willis (1622–1675), Francis Glisson (1597–1677), Thomas Wharton (1610–1673), and Nathaniel Highmore (1613–1684). The part played by Germany in these gains in anatomy and physiology, during the period now under consideration, was chiefly that of a sympathetic recipient; for the political conditions at that time were entirely unfavorable to any active participation on the part of the physicians of that country. Early in the eighteenth century, however, they began in earnest to do their share of work in advancing the science of medicine.

The relationship of the physical sciences to the theory and practice of medicine is not of an intimate nature, and it will therefore not be necessary for me to do more than briefly to enumerate the more important of the discoveries of this character which occurred during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Galileo (1564–1642), a native of Pisa, Italy, was the creator of the science of motion, and he gave the first satisfactory demonstration of equilibrium on an inclined plane. He devised an imperfect species of thermometer, a proportional compass, and the refracting telescope, by means of which latter instrument he made a number of other important discoveries in the domain of astronomy. His pupil, Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), also a native of Italy, discovered the barometer, and in addition arrived at many fundamental truths in mechanics and hydrostatics. Otto von Guericke (1602–1686), a native of Magdeburg, Germany, invented the air pump. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), born at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, one of the world’s greatest authorities in natural philosophy, was the first to formulate clearly the law of gravitation. Edme Mariotte (1620–1684), a native of Burgundy, France, was the discoverer of what is commonly known as “Mariotte’s law”--i.e., a law of elastic fluids, according to which the elastic force is exactly in the inverse proportion of the space which the mass of fluid occupies. He also discovered that the part of the retina at which it meets the optic nerve is not capable of conveying the impression of sight. Finally, Denis Papin (1647–1710), a Frenchman, invented the first steam engine, of an embryonic and not very practical type; for in this apparatus the piston floated on the water in a separate cylinder.

The inventions which I have here briefly enumerated represent the more important discoveries that were made in physical science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

The Beginnings of a Modern Pharmacopoeia, and One of the Last Attempts of the Disciples of Galen to Maintain Their Ascendancy in Therapeutics.--In the domain of pharmacology the first attempt in modern times to organize this department of practical medicine was made by an apothecary in Barcelona in 1497, and was published by him in printed form in 1521. (Von Gurlt.) This pharmacopoeia was doubtless wholly unknown beyond the borders of Spain. Not far from one hundred years later,--i.e., in the early part of the seventeenth century,--Theodore Turquet de Mayerne, who was born in 1573, in a small village near the city of Geneva, made the second attempt in modern times to organize the pharmacological department of practical medicine. After showing quite early in life a fondness for the study of chemistry, he devoted himself particularly to the investigation of the remedies that are produced in the chemist’s laboratory; the preparations of antimony attracting his especial interest. A little before this time the physicians of Paris were split up into two strongly antagonistic parties as regards the propriety of administering this metal in any form as a remedy; but those who opposed its therapeutic employment finally managed to secure from Parliament, in 1566, a decree prohibiting its use. While this quarrel was in progress, de Mayerne visited Paris (1602) and established himself in that city as an independent lecturer on chemistry. As the regular faculty still held the belief that the teachings of Galen were the only safe guide for physicians to follow, de Mayerne’s action must have appeared to them like an impudent challenge. In one of his writings he strongly recommended the employment of antimonial preparations,--remedies introduced originally by the much-hated Paracelsus,--and he even went so far as to offer some for sale. This was too much for the disciples of Galen to bear without a protest, and consequently in 1603 the Parliament issued a new decree, in accordance with which de Mayerne was prohibited from practicing medicine in Paris. This measure appears to have proved successful in putting a stop effectively to his obnoxious teachings, for we learn that shortly afterward he was known to be living in London, where, in 1611, he was appointed the Physician-in-Ordinary to King James the First, and later to Charles the First. He died in 1655.

Jean Astruc, the distinguished French medical author of the eighteenth century, speaks rather disparagingly of de Mayerne’s attempt to organize a pharmacopoeia. An earlier, more successful, and much more creditable attempt of this nature was made by Valerius Cordus, whose “Dispensatorium pharmacorum omnium” was first published at Nürnberg in 1535. This work, which subsequently bore the title “Pharmacopoeia Augustana,” up to the year 1627 passed through at least seven editions and was utilized to a greater or less extent by the authors or editors of nearly all later pharmacopoeias. To go still further back, the most ancient pharmacopoeia of which we have any knowledge is that which bears the title of “Antidotarium Nicolai,” the author of which work was Nicolaus, the President or Dean of the Medical School at Salerno. The book was written originally during the first half of the twelfth century, but it did not appear in print, at Venice, until the year 1471, and then only in an incomplete form. Quite recently a French translation of the book has been made and published (1896) by Paul Dorveaux, of the Paris School of Pharmacy. Most of the preparations there described have long since been abandoned, but a few of them--such, for example, as citrine ointment, honey of roses, oxymel, and oil of roses--are still to be found in the pharmacopoeias of some nations.

Itinerant Lithotomists.--For an unknown number of years preceding the sixteenth century it had been a well-established custom for members of the medical profession in France, and also, doubtless, in neighboring countries, to intrust--as the Hippocratic oath enjoined--all cases of stone in the bladder to expert lithotomists. Such special knowledge and skill were not easily acquired, and so it came about that there were very few individuals who were acknowledged to be experts and who were really capable of teaching the art, and these few guarded most carefully the knowledge which they had gained. During the period of time which we are now considering, certain members of the Collot and Pineau families were the most distinguished lithotomists in France, and the records show that in the year 1600 Jehan Paradis and Nicolas Serre petitioned the Government for official recognition of their special rights to enjoy a monopoly of operative work of this character. “We ask that you give orders that all poor patients who may apply to Hôtel-Dieu (the great city hospital of Paris) or to the Bureau-of-the-Poor for relief from stone in the bladder, be turned over to our care for proper treatment. The poor will receive this treatment gratis, and those who can afford to pay will be charged a very reasonable fee. And you will do well if you prohibit all other persons from meddling with such cases in any manner.” In a document bearing the date 1646 mention is made of four lithotomists--Philippe and Charles Collot, Jacques Girault and Antoine Ruffin--who had erected in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, Paris, a building which was intended to serve as a hospital “in which, at any time during the entire year, those who are afflicted with stone in the bladder may be lodged, fed, nursed and subjected to proper treatment,--the poor without charge of any kind, and the well-to-do at a proper rate of remuneration.”

In Franco’s time (middle of the sixteenth century) cutting for stone in the bladder was by no means an uncommon operation, and was almost always performed by itinerant lithotomists (“inciseurs”). The Collots had, for many years, possessed almost a monopoly of this business. Laurent Collot, who was the first one of the family to engage in the work, was Royal Lithotomist in 1556, and handed down to his son all the knowledge on this subject which he had acquired through long experience. François Tolet was another of these popular lithotomists who flourished in Paris during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He died in 1724 at the age of seventy-seven. His treatise on lithotomy, which was published in Paris in 1681, and subsequently passed through several editions, is said by Dezeimeris to contain the records of a large number of his own cases and to show clearly that he was a surgeon of sound judgment. No better treatise on this subject, he adds, was published during that period of the history of medicine.

In addition to those whom I have just mentioned there were two French monks who gained wide celebrity as operators for stone in the bladder, viz., Frère Jacques de Beaulieu and Frère Côme. The last-named belongs to the early part of the eighteenth century, and should therefore--in accordance with the plan which I have been following--not receive consideration in the present account; but, in view of the fact that these are the only two monks who, during the Renaissance and the period immediately following, gained conspicuous credit for the honorable and efficient service which they rendered, not merely to the science of medicine but also to the cause of humanity, I believe that I cannot do better than to place the two sketches together as if they both belonged strictly to one and the same period of time.

Born in 1651 in the village of Létendonne, Franche-Comté, France.

(From the steel engraving in the treatise De la Taille Latérale par le Périnée, etc., by Pascal Baseilhac, nephew of Frère Côme, Paris, 1804.)]

(a) Frère Jacques--or Brother James, who was born in 1561 at the village of Létendonne, near Lons-le-Saulnier, Central France,--learned the art of operating for stone in the bladder from an Italian surgeon named Paulony, and acted as his assistant or associate up to the time when he became a monk of the Order of Saint Francis--that is, of that branch of the Order which had its chapter house at Feuillants in Languedoc. He traveled about the country offering to treat gratuitously all persons affected with stone in the bladder who were willing to trust him, and he made it a rule, whenever such a thing was possible, always to operate in the presence of one or more physicians or surgeons. He was also ready at all times to give instruction to those who wished to learn his method of procedure. He never asked to be remunerated, but was always pleased to receive from his patients a written testimonial of what he had done for them. Out of the moneys which he received from the rich he retained only that which he required for his own support and for the purchase of such instruments as he from time to time required; the balance he distributed among the poor. He was very faithful in performing his religious duties, and he succeeded in gaining the good will and esteem of everybody with whom he had any dealings.

For a long time it was customary in France to credit Frère Jacques (Fig. 26) with the invention of the lateral method of operating for stone in the bladder. This, however, was an error, for Franco, on page 95 of E. Nicaise’s reproduction of the 1561 edition, describes this operation clearly. It must therefore have been invented a long time before Frère Jacques was born. The text (rendered into English) reads as follows: “... the incision should be made between the anus and the testicles, two or three finger-breadths to one side of the commissure or perinaeum [median line of the perinaeum].” This is said to be the earliest clear description of the first step of the lateral operation of which we have any knowledge.

In 1697, when Frère Jacques visited Paris, he had already attained wide celebrity as a lithotomist; the number of his successful operations--all of which had been performed according to the lateral method of procedure--having reached a grand total of several thousand. He therefore had a right to suppose that his visit would prove acceptable to the physicians of that metropolis; but the published account of this visit reveals plainly the fact that the surgeons of that city were not at all pleased that an itinerant lithotomist from one of the provinces should have the effrontery to request permission of the authorities to exhibit his method before the Medical Faculty of Paris. His request, however, was granted, and he was allowed to operate on a man, forty years old, at Hôtel-Dieu. He performed the operation before a large assembly of physicians, and, after the stone had been successfully extracted, the patient made a prompt recovery. A short time afterward he operated upon another patient at Fontainebleau in the presence of several physicians, one of whom was Monsieur Félix, the First Surgeon of the King, Louis the Fourteenth. In this case also, as well as in several later cases, Frère Jacques was entirely successful, and he now began to be treated by the public with marked consideration. But, in a short time, owing to the jealousy exhibited by a large clique of Paris surgeons, who were encouraged to pursue this course by Mery, the Head Surgeon of Hôtel-Dieu, Frère Jacques was finally forced to leave Paris. I cannot follow him on his further wanderings throughout Europe, from the leading cities of Holland, Belgium and Switzerland to Vienna and Rome. In 1716 he retired to Besançon and lived there quietly up to the time of his death in 1719. But even then his enemies--men to whom he had never done the slightest harm--did their best to destroy the last traces of his existence. A visit made to Besançon by one of his acquaintances not long after our Franciscan monk’s death, revealed the fact that his name had been erased from the church registry of deaths. The lateral method of operating for stone, which had been revived and thoroughly developed by him, still finds favor among the best surgeons of our own day; and the names of those mean-spirited men who tried so hard to injure him have long since passed into complete oblivion.

(From the steel engraving in Pascal Baseilhac’s treatise.)]

(From the steel engraving in Pascal Baseilhac’s treatise.)]

(b) Frère Jean de Saint-Côme,--or Brother John of Saint Cosmas,--whose real name was Jean Baseilhac, was born in 1703 at Poyestruc, Department of Hautes-Pyrenées, France. He received his instruction in the principles of medicine from his father and his grandfather, both of whom were regularly enrolled Masters in Surgery. In 1722, when there could no longer be any doubt about young Baseilhac’s settled purpose to fit himself for the practice of medicine, his father sent him to Lyons, where his uncle, who was himself a surgeon, would be able to superintend the boy’s further training. Through the latter’s influence, young Baseilhac was allowed to enter the Hôtel-Dieu of that city as one of its regular pupils. At the end of two years--i.e., in 1724--he left Lyons and went to Paris, where he hoped to add materially to his stock of professional knowledge. His first step, after reaching the metropolis, was to enter the service of a surgeon in active practice; and then, aided by the latter’s influence, he succeeded (in 1726) in entering the Paris Hôtel-Dieu as one of the regular pupils. Soon after he had completed his term of service at the hospital, he was appointed Physician-in-Ordinary to the Prince-Bishop of Bayeux, in Normandy. The death of the latter in 1728, less than two years after Baseilhac had entered his service, came as a great blow to the young surgeon, for he had learned to esteem him very highly. In his will the Bishop left a small legacy to Baseilhac--that is, a sum of money sufficient to pay for the regular course of instruction at the Medical School of Saint Cosmas in Paris, and also to procure a complete outfit of surgical instruments. In 1740 he became a member of the Feuillants Branch of the Franciscan monks, it being understood, however, that he was to be allowed the special privilege of practicing surgery among the poorer classes. Through accidental circumstances he was led gradually to drop general surgery and to confine his work to operations for stone. His official name at this time was “Frère Jean de Saint-Côme,” or simply “Frère Côme.” (Fig. 27.) As he gained in experience as a lithotomist, he became convinced that the method which his predecessor, Frère Jacques, had practiced with such great success, was preferable to the more complicated and more dangerous plan commonly pursued by surgeons at that time, and thereafter he adopted it in all his cases. But he modified the procedure to a certain extent; that is, he invented an instrument by means of which the actual cutting of the perinaeum was accomplished with a concealed knife (see Fig. 28). The chief advantage to be gained by the employment of this instrument consisted--as was claimed by Frère Jean and his nephew, Pascal Baseilhac,--in the fact that in this way the danger of making the incision in the wrong place, or of too great length, was materially diminished.

The first patient upon whom the new instrument was tried (October 8, 1748), was a dealer in lime, sixty years of age and in rather delicate health. In less than three weeks after the operation, he was entirely cured. Subsequently the instrument was employed in a large number of instances, and the method was found to be most satisfactory; successful results being obtained--on the average--in twelve out of thirteen cases, whereas the best results previously obtained by the method commonly employed at that period was 50 per cent of cures. At a still later date the statistics showed even better results--viz., 96 cures in one group of 100 cases, and 316 cures in a second group of 330 cases.

Owing to the rapidly increasing number of patients affected with stone in the bladder who wished to be operated upon by Frère Jean himself, he established in Paris in 1753, near the Saint Honoré gateway, a special hospital for lithotomy cases, and kept it in active service up to the time of his death. The laboring classes, and the poor in general, were not expected to pay any fees, and indeed money was often bestowed upon these people when they left the hospital, to enable them to return comfortably to their villages; those in moderate circumstances were asked to pay only the expenses that had been incurred in their behalf; and the well-to-do made such voluntary contributions as they thought proper toward the support of the hospital. The registers of the institution showed that, first and last, over one thousand operations had been performed there, either by Frère Jean or by his nephew, Pascal Baseilhac. Our monk’s death occurred on July 8, 1781.

THE END

LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT AUTHORITIES CONSULTED

ARISTOTLE: HISTORY OF ANIMALS, translated by Richard Cresswell, London, 1902.

ASCHOFF, L.: KURZE UEBERSICHTSTABELLE ZUR GESCHICHTE DER MEDIZIN; forms the second part of Schwalbe’s treatise (q.v.).

BAAS-HANDERSON: HISTORY OF MEDICINE, New York, 1910.

BASEILHAC, PASCAL: DE LA TAILLE LATÉRALE PAR LA PÉRINÉE, ET CELLE DE L’HYPOGASTRE, OU HAUT APPAREIL, Paris, 1804. (Includes an account of the career of Frère Côme.)

BERENDES, J.: DAS APOTHEKENWESEN, Stuttgart, 1907.

BOERHAAVE: A NEW METHOD OF CHEMISTRY, translated by Peter Shaw, M.D., London, 1741; APHORISMS, etc., English translation, London, 1742.

BOTTEY, F.: TRAITÉ THÉORIQUE ET PRATIQUE D’HYDROTHÉRAPIE MÉDICALE, Paris, 1895.

BROUSSAIS, F. J. V.: EXAMEN DES DOCTRINES MÉDICALES, troisième edition (4 vols.), Paris, 1829–1834.

CABANÈS: PARACELSE--L’HOMME ET L’ŒUVRE, article in La Revue Scientifique, Paris, May 19, 1894.

CASALIS: DE PROFANIS ROMANORUM RITIBUS; Chapter VII., DE AESCULAPIO, Rome, 1644.

CELSE, A. C.: TRAITÉ DE MÉDECINE; traduction par le Dr. A. Védrènes, Paris, 1876.

CHEREAU: LES ANCIENNES ÉCOLES DE MÉDECINE DE LA RUE DE LA BUCHERIE, Paris, 1866.

CULLEN, WILLIAM: FIRST LINES OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, Edinburgh, 1802. (2 vols.)

DAREMBERG, CHARLES: ŒUVRES ANATOMIQUES, PHYSIOLOGIQUES ET MÉDICALES DE GALIEN, 2 vols., Paris, 1854–1856; ÉTAT DE LA MÉDECINE ENTRE HOMÈRE ET HIPPOCRATE, Paris, 1869; HISTOIRE DES SCIENCES MÉDICALES, 2 vols., Paris, 1870.

DEZEIMERIS, OLLIVIER ET RAIGE-DELORME: DICTIONNAIRE HIST. DE LA MÉD. ANC. ET MOD., 3 vols., Paris, 1828–1837.

DIOSKURIDES, PEDANIOS: ARZNEIMITTELLEHRE, Uebersetzung von Dr. J. Berendes, Stuttgart, 1902.

DORVEAUX, PAUL: L’ANTIDOTAIRE NICOLAI (NICOLAUS PRAEPOSITUS), Paris, 1896.

FALK: GALEN’S LEHRE VOM GESUNDEN UND KRANKEN NERVENSYSTEME, Leipzig, 1871.

FINCKENSTEIN: ZUR GESCHICHTE DER SYPHILIS, Breslau, 1870.

FOSSEL, VIKTOR: HIERONYMUS FRACASTORO; DREI BUECHER VON DEN CONTAGIEN, DEN KONTAGIOESEN KRANKHEITEN UND DEREN BEHANDLUNG (1546), Leipzig, 1910.

FRANCO, PIERRE: CHIRURGIE, Nouvelle édition par E. Nicaise, Paris, 1895.

FREIND, J.: THE HISTORY OF PHYSICK, 2d edition, London, 1727. (2 vols.)

FRIEDLAENDER, L. H.: VORLESUNGEN UEBER DIE GESCHICHTE DER HEILKUNDE, Leipzig, 1839.

FROELICH, H.: GALEN UEBER KRANKHEITSVORTAEUSCHUNGEN, in Friedrich’s Blaetter fuer Gerichtliche Medicin, I. Heft, vierzigster Jahrgang, Nuernberg, 1889.

GERMAIN, A.: L’ÉCOLE DE MÉDECINE DE MONTPELLIER, Montpellier, 1880.

GUERINI: A HISTORY OF DENTISTRY, etc., Philadelphia and New York, 1909.

VON GURLT: GESCHICHTE DER CHIRURGIE, Berlin, 1898. (3 vols.)

GUY DE CHAULIAC: LA GRANDE CHIRURGIE, edited by Edouard Nicaise, Paris, 1890.

HAESER, H.: LEHRBUCH DER GESCHICHTE DER MEDICIN, zweite Ausgabe, Jena, 1868. (3d edition, 1875.)

VON HALLER, ALBERT: BIBLIOTHECA MEDICINAE PRACTICAE, Basel, 1776. (4 vols.)

HERODOTUS: HISTORY, translated by George Rawlinson, M.A. (2 vols.)

HIPPOCRATES: SAEMMTLICHE WERKE, translated into German by Dr. Robert Fuchs (3 vols.), Munich, 1895–1900.

HIRSCH, AUGUST: GESCHICHTE DER MED. WISSENSCHAFTEN IN DEUTSCHLAND, Muenchen und Leipzig, 1893.

HOLLAENDER, EUGEN: DIE MEDIZIN IN DER KLASSISCHEN MALEREI, Stuttgart, 1903; PLASTIK UND MEDIZIN, Stuttgart, 1912.

HOMER: THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY, published by Dent & Sons, London. (2 vols.)

HYRTL, JOSEPH: LEHRBUCH DER ANATOMIE DES MENSCHEN, Vienna, 1846.

JUSSERAND, J. J.: ENGLISH WAYFARING LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES (14th century), G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London, 1889.

LABOULBÈNE, M. A.: SYNDENHAM ET SON OEUVRE, article in the Revue Scientifique, Tome XLVIII, November 28, 1891.

LE CLERC, DANIEL: HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Amsterdam, 1723.

LE CLERC, LUCIEN: HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE ARABE (2 vols.), Paris, 1876.

LEMOINE, ALBERT: LE VITALISME ET L’ANIMISME DE STAHL, Paris, 1864.

MALGAIGNE: OEUVRES COMPLÈTES D’AMBROISE PARÉ, 1840–1841, (3 vols.)

MEYER-STEINEG: CORNELIUS CELSUS UEBER GRUNDFRAGEN DER MEDIZIN, Leipzig, 1912; KRANKEN-ANSTALTEN IM GRIECHISCHROEMISCHEN ALTERTUM, Jena, 1912.

VON MEYER, E.: GESCHICHTE DER CHEMIE, 3d edition, Leipzig, 1905.

MOMMSEN, THEODORE: THE HISTORY OF ROME, translated from the German by W. P. Dickson and published by Dent & Sons, London.

MUENZ, ISAAC: UEBER DIE JUEDISCHEN AERZTE IM MITTELALTER, Berlin, 1887.

NEUBURGER, ALBERT: FRIEDRICH HOFFMANN UEBER DAS KOHLENOXYDGAS, Leipzig, 1912.

NEUBURGER, MAX: GESCHICHTE DER MEDIZIN, Vol. I. and Vol. II., zweiter Theil, 1906–1911.

OPITZ, KARL: DIE MEDIZIN IM KORAN, Stuttgart, 1906.

ORDRONAUX, JOHN: Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, translated into English verse, Philadelphia, 1871.

PAGEL, JULIUS: EINFUEHRUNG IN DIE GESCHICHTE DER MEDICIN, Berlin, 1898.

PESSINA VON CECHOROD, W. M.: HEILIGE AERZTE UND PFLEGER DER KRANKEN, Prag, 1859.

PETERSEN, JULIUS: HAUPTMOMENTE IN DER GESCHICHTLICHEN ENTWICKELUNG DER MEDICINISCHEN THERAPIE, Copenhagen, 1877.

PLATO: THE REPUBLIC, TIMAEUS, AND CRITIAS, translated by Henry Davis, London, 1911.

PLATTER, FELIX ET THOMAS, à Montpellier (1552–1557; 1595–1599), Montpellier, 1892.

PRISCIANUS, THEODORUS: uebersetzt von Dr. Meyer-Steineg, Jena, 1909.

PUSCHMANN, THEODOR: THE ORIGINAL GREEK TEXT AND A GERMAN TRANSLATION OF ALEXANDER OF TRALLES, Vienna, 1878; and GESCHICHTE DES MEDICINISCHEN UNTERRICHTS, Leipzig, 1889.

RUFUS D’EPHÉSE: OEUVRES, traduites par Daremberg et Ruelle, Paris, 1879.

RENAN, ERNEST: AVERROÈS ET L’AVERROISME, 2me édition, Paris, 1861.

SALICET, GUILLAUME DE: CHIRURGIE, traduction par Paul Pifteau, Toulouse, 1898.

SCHWALBE, ERNST: VORLESUNGEN UEBER GESCHICHTE DER MEDIZIN, 2te Auflage, Jena, 1909.

SIEBOLD, E. VON: VERSUCH EINER GESCHICHTE DER GEBURTSHUELFE (2 vols.), Berlin, 1839.

SOUTH, JOHN FLINT: MEMORIALS OF THE CRAFT OF SURGERY IN ENGLAND, edited by D’Arcy Power, M.A. Oxon., F.R.C.S. Eng., 1886.

SPIESS, G. A.: J. B. VAN HELMONT’S SYSTEM DER MEDICIN, Frankfort am Main, 1840.

SPRENGEL, KURT: VERSUCH EINER PRAGMATISCHEN GESCHICHTE DER ARZNEIKUNDE (5 vols.), Halle, 1821–1828.

TACITUS: THE ANNALS, edited by E. H. Blankeney, Dent & Sons, London.

TSINTSIROPOULOS, CONSTANTIN: LA MÉDECINE GRECQUE DEPUIS ASCLÉPIADE JUSQU’ À GALIEN, Paris, 1892.

WELLMANN, MAX: DIE PNEUMATISCHE SCHULE, Berlin, 1895.

WISEMAN, RICHARD: EIGHT SURGICAL TREATISES, 5th edition, London, 1719.

GENERAL INDEX

ABDOMEN, penetrating wounds of, 469

ABELLA, teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

ABOU BEKR, distinguished Arab physician in Spain, 232

ABOU SAHL EL MESSIHY, distinguished Persian physician, 223

ABSCESS, mediastinal, 229

ABULCASIS, famous Arab surgeon, 226

ABULPHARAGIUS, 184

ACADÉMIE DE CHIRURGIE, Paris (1731), 450

ACADÉMIE DES CURIEUX DA LA NATURE, 364

ACADÉMIE DES SCIENCES, 363

ACCADEMIA DEI LINCEI, Rome, 364

ACCADEMIA DEL CIMENTO, Florence, 364

ACRABADIN KEBIR, 209

ACUPRESSURE, 143

ADAMS, FREDERICK, 89

AEGIDIUS CORBOLIENSIS, 255

AENEAS, wounded in groin, 49

AESCULAPIUS, 47, 49 symbol of, 315 temple of, at Cos, 514

AËTIUS, 194, 318

AFFLACIUS, JOHN, 245, 248

AGATHINUS, 142

AGRATE, MARCO, 339

AIGLE, daughter of Aesculapius, 50

ALAE NASI, Galen’s comments on movements of, 173

ALBERT VON BOLLSTEDT (Albertus Magnus), 269

ALCMAEON, 73, 79

ALDEROTTI, THADDEUS, 272

ALEXANDER OF TRALLES, 195

ALEXANDER PHILALETHES, 115

ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 100

ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT, 100, 116

ALHAZEN, researches in optics, 233

ALKALOIDS (quintessences of Paracelsus), 405

ALMANSUR, Caliph of Bagdad, 184, 203

ALMENAR, JUAN, 544

ALPHANUS II., Abbot of Monte Cassino, 239

ALSAHARAVIUS, 227

ALU, 13

AMATUS LUSITANUS, 484, 487

AMBROSIA, antidote for poisons, 112

AMPUTATION OF LEG (Fig.), 463

AMROU, 116, 185

AMULETS and other magical remedies, 197

ANAESTHESIA, SURGICAL, from employment of soporific sponges, 253, 462

ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATIONS at Salerno, 253

ANATOMICAL SPECIMENS, preservation of, 356

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, important discoveries during 16th century, 353

ANATOMY, importance of study of, 312

ANATOMY, MICROSCOPIC, 360

ANAXIMANDER, 72

ANAXIMENES, 72

ANDREAS OF CARYSTUS, 114

ANIMISM, 405, 432

ANTIDOTARIUM, early name for pharmacopoeia, 319

ANTIDOTARIUM NICOLAI, 548

ANTIMONY, curative action of, 158, 548

ANTIOCHUS, cured by Erasistratus, 106

ANTONINUS PIUS, 57

ANTRUM OF HIGHMORE, 359

ANTYLLUS, 143, 201

APES, dissection of, 164

APOLLO, the god of medicine, 18, 50

APOLLONIUS MUS, 111

APOTHECARY, 316, 319

APPARATUS MAGNUS (operation for stone in the bladder), 474

APULEIUS, LUCIUS, 120, 126

AQUA VITAE, how prepared, 313

ARABIAN PHYSICIANS, dogmatism of, 412

ARAB RENAISSANCE, 203, 217, 233, 259

ARANTIAN OPERATION, a substitute for Tagliacotian operation, 481

ARANZIO or ARANTIUS, 349, 481

ARCEO, FRANCISCO, 484, 486

ARCHAEUS INFLUUS and ARCHAEUS INSITUS, 399

ARCHAGATHUS, 119

ARCHIGENES, 142, 174 on ligation of larger blood-vessels before amputation of a limb, 470

ARCHIMATHAEUS, 248

ARDERNE, JOHN, 307

ARETAEUS, 144

ARISTOPHANES, 58

ARISTOTLE, 73, 102, 433 commentary by Averroes, 229

ARNOLD, of Villanova, 292–296

ARROW, EXTRACTION OF, from chest during battle (Fig.), 461

ARS PARVA, of Galen, 248

ARTERIES, ligaturing of divided, after an amputation, 289

ARTERIOTOMY, for relief of hemicrania, 470

ARTERY FORCEPS devised by Ambroise Paré, 512

ASAKKU, the demon who produces fever in the head, 13

ASCLEPIADES, founder of a new sect at Rome, 116, 119, 122

ASCLEPIEIA, 50, 52, 57

ASCLEPIEION at Cos (Figs.), 53 at Epidaurus, 52

ASELLI, CASPAR, 385

ASSYRIAN MEDICINE, 11

ASTRINGENTS, 133

ASTROLOGER, a typical, 12

ASTROLOGERS in Babylonia, 14

ASTRUC, JEAN, 548

ATHENAEUS, founder of sect of Pneumatists, 141

ATHENS, a great medical centre, 96 epidemic of the Plague at, 96

ATHLETIC EXERCISES as a therapeutic measure, 69

ATHOTIS, 17

AUGUSTUS, Roman Emperor, cured of gout by hydrotherapy, 129

AURICLES OF THE HEART, comments on, by H. de Mondeville, 290

AUSCULTATION of the chest, 20, 159

AUSTRICHILDIS, King Guntram’s wife, 240, 241

AUTHORS, numerous in Cordova in 12th century, 232

AVERROES, pupil of Avenzoar, 229

AVERROISM, 267

AVENZOAR, 228

AVICENNA, 221

BABYLONIA, genuine remedial agents employed in, 13

BABYLONIAN ASTROLOGERS, 14

BABYLONIANS, strange beliefs held by, in regard to human anatomy and physiology, 13

BACON, FRANCIS, 338

BACON, ROGER, 271

BACTERIOLOGY, first studies in, 362

BAGDAD, a second great hospital founded at, in A. D. 914, 219

BAIN, CHRISTOPHER, 396

BAKHTICHOU BEN DJORDIS, 205, 207

BAKHTICHOU, GEORGE, 205

BARBARIC LATIN, 262

BARBERS, the earliest surgeons in France, 530

BARBERS AND BARBER-SURGEONS, 282, 369, 449, 464

BARBER-SURGEONS’ COMPANY, of London, 519

BARTHOLOMAEUS, 245

BASEILHAC, JEAN, 552

BASEILHAC, PASCAL, 496

BASEL, public dissection of human body at, 455 visited by Vesalius in 1542, 455

BATHS extensively used by ancients, 157, 323

BAUDELOCQUE, 539

BEDE, THE VENERABLE, believed in cures by supernatural means, 241

BELLADONNA, when first used for dilating the pupils, 157

BENEDICTINE MONASTERY on Monte Cassino, 238

BENIVENI, ANTONIO, 389, 498

BENVENUTO CELLINI, 341

BERENDES, 159, 317, 322, 426

BERENGARIUS OF CARPI, 342, 374

BERNARDO DI RAPALLO, 472

BERTHARIUS, abbot of Monte Cassino, 239

BERTHELOT, on Geber, 320

BERTRUCIUS, 310

BILE, black and yellow, 86 manner of production, 109

BLADDER, tuberculous ulceration of, 200

BLANCAARD, STEPHEN, 359

BLOOD, inflammation of (Sydenham), 423 production of, according to Erasistratus, 109 spirituous, 373 transfusion of, 408

BLOODLETTING, comments on, by Celsus, 152 from a vein, technique, 152 how practice first originated, 6 rule of Hippocrates regarding, 411 under what circumstances advisable, 133

BLOOD-VESSELS, CAPILLARY, circulation in, 383 when first injected artificially, 356, 359

BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, 144, 438, 441 gives clinical instruction at Leyden, 430 treatise on chemistry the standard for many years, 440

BOILING OF DRINKING WATER practiced by ancient Persians, 26

BOLOGNA MEDICAL SCHOOL, 272, 281, 332

BONIFACE VIII., POPE, successfully treated for stone in the bladder, 293

BOOKS, great demand for, in 15th century, 329

BORELLI, ALPHONSO, 368

BOTALLO, LEONARDO, 413

BOTANICAL GARDENS, 17, 392, 393

BOUGIES, URETHRAL, 495

BOURGEOIS, LOUISE, 536

BOYLE, ROBERT, a distinguished chemist, 406

BRANCA, father and son, skilled in rhinoplasty, 459

BRASSAVOLA, experimental pharmacologist, 398

BREVIARIUM, ARNOLD’S, 294

BRIGGS, WILLIAM, 545

BRISSOT, PIERRE, 411

BRONZE SURGICAL KNIVES, 16

BROWNE, ANDREW, the friend of Sydenham, 422, 424

BRUNNER, JOHANN CONRAD, 359

BRUNSCHWIG, HIERONYMUS, 456

BRUNUS, 277

BULLETS not hot when they enter the flesh, 513

BURINNA, name of spring on the Island of Cos, 54

BYZANTIUM, the new capital of the Roman Empire, 180

CABANÈS, 402

CACAO, 395

CAELIUS AURELIANUS, 132, 159

CAESAR, JULIUS, liberality of, toward foreign physicians settled in Rome, 119

CAESALPINUS, ANDREAS, 372, 375, 394

CAESARIAN SECTION, 396, 534

CAIRO PHYSICIANS distinguished ophthalmologists, 225

CALCAR, Vesalius’ draughtsman, 344

CALCULUS in the bladder may not be dissolved by internal remedies, 498

CALLIDUM INNATUM of Hippocrates, 415

CALVIN, JOHN, visited by Felix Platter, 335

CANCER OF BREAST, sculptured in marble (Fig.), 68

CANCER, ULCERATED, not to be cauterized, 285

CANNANI, 378

CANON, THE, of Avicenna, 222

CAPSICUM, 395

CARAKA, East Indian medical author, 31

CARBONIC ACID, nature of, expounded by Van Helmont, 400

CARBONOUS OXIDE, 434

CARCANO LEONE, 475, 476

CASE HISTORIES recorded on tablets, 67

CASSIODORUS, 238

CASTOR OIL, perfected by Apollonius Mus, 111

CATARACT OPERATIONS of Pierre Franco, 494

CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS, 117, 235

CAUSTICS, too freely used as haemostatics, 466

CAUTERIZATION of ulcerated cancer not approved by Lanfranchi, 285

CAUTERIZING INSTRUMENTS, 279

CELSUS, AULUS CORNELIUS, 150, 151, 155

CEREBRAL NERVES, crossing of, in relation to paralysis of one side of the body, 144

CERMISONE, ANTONIO, 313

CHAMBERLEN, HUGH, 538

CHALDEAN DOCTRINE OF NUMBERS, 74

CHARCOAL, fumes of burning, 435

CHAUCER’S ACCOUNT of a clever physician, 308

CHEMICAL ELEMENT defined, 407

CHEMISTRY in ancient Egypt, 17 modern, developed gradually from alchemy, 320

CHICORY an effective remedy in abdominal diseases, 109

CHINESE CONCEPTIONS concerning human physiology, 41

CHINESE MEDICINE, 38, 39

CHIRON, 48

CHRISTIANITY, influence of, upon evolution of medicine, 179

CHRYSIPPUS, 141

CHYLE, distribution of, after it leaves the stomach, 109

CHYLE DUCTS, discovery of, 385

CICERO’S INTERPRETATION of the expression “gods” as employed by the ancients, 18

CINCHONA, discovery of, 408

CIRCA INSTANS, the title commonly given to treatise of Matthew Platearius, 253

CIRCULATION OF BLOOD, Galen’s physiology of, 373 de Mondeville’s comments, 289

CITIZENSHIP, rights of, bestowed by Julius Caesar on all foreign physicians practicing in Rome, 119, 130

CIVITAS HIPPOCRATICA, 243

CLAUDIUS, Roman Emperor, merciful action of, toward slaves, 235

CLEMENS, of Alexandria, Egypt, 17

CLEMENT IV., POPE, protects Roger Bacon, 272

CLEMENT V., POPE, removes papal seat from Rome to Avignon, 293

CLINICAL INSTRUCTION at Leyden Hospital, 429

CLOWES, William, 519

CNIDIAN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, 81

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor, 51

COCA, 395

COLD, exposure to, unusual treatment of, 489

COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, London, 417

COLLEGE OF SAINT COSMAS, Paris, 283, 284, 448

COLLIGET, title of treatise written by Averroes, 229

COLOT, LAURENT, famous French lithotomist, 474

COLUMBUS, REALDUS, 349 experiments relating to physiology of heart, 377

CÔME, FRÈRE, 550

COMMUNITIES, term employed by the Methodists for designating the two conditions “laxum” and “strictum,” 130

COMPENDIUM AROMATARIORUM, the first modern treatise on materia medica, 320

COMPENDIUM SALERNITANUM, 246

CONCILIATOR, title of one of Pietro d’Abano’s great works, 266, 267

CONSTANTINOPLE, taking of, by the Turks, an important aid to the advance of medicine, 328

CONSTANTINUS THE AFRICAN, 239, 248, 260

CONTAGION, INNATE, 220

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, Fracastoro’s classification of, 390

CONTINENS, title of Rhazes’ great work, 220, 262

CONTRARIA CONTRARIIS, principle of, in therapeutics, 132

COSMAS AND DAMIAN, 282, 449

COPAIVA, BALSAM OF, 395

COPHON, teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

CORDOVA, SPAIN, centre of great intellectual activity, 218, 232

CORPSE, the touching of a, believed by the Persians to produce a special contamination, 25

COS, ISLAND OF (Figs.), 53

COSTA BEN LUCA, 215, 216

COSTANZA CALENDA, 245

COWPER, WILLIAM, 360

CROKE, A., 250

CRONOS, 19

CROTONA, ITALY, 51

CULLEN, WILLIAM, 432

CURTIS, JOHN G., 72, 140

CYRENE, in Lybia, Africa, 51

CYSTOTOMY, HYPOGASTRIC, 495

DAMASCUS, an active medical centre in the 13th century, 225, 232

DAREMBERG, 50, 75, 240, 420

DARIUS I., King of the Persians, 26, 75

DAVID’S HARP-PLAYING, effect of, on King Saul’s melancholia, 27

DA VINCI, LEONARDO, 339

DAZA CHACON, 484

DE LE BOË, FRANZ, 427

DE MARCHETTIS, DOMENICO, 359

DEMETRIUS, OF APAMEA, 114

DEMOCEDES, 73, 75

DEMOCRITUS, 82

DEMOSTHENES, OF MARSEILLES, 115

DENYS, OF PARIS, 408

DESIDERIUS, Abbot of Monte Cassino, 239

DEZEIMERIS, 341, 400

DIETETICS OF PREGNANT WOMEN, 199

DIETING AND ATHLETIC EXERCISES, 69

DIETZ, REINHOLD, discoverer of an early Greek manuscript of Soranus, 138

DIGESTION, physiology of, according to Erasistratus, 108 according to Aretaeus, 144

DIOCLES, of Carystos, 103

DIONIS, PIERRE, distinguished French anatomist, 41, 364, 383, 540

DIOSCORIDES, PEDANIUS, 157, 317

DIPHTHERIA, GENUINE, recognized by Paracelsus, 405

DIPHTHERIA, PHARYNGEAL, known in 2d century as Syriac ulcer, 144

DISEASES mentioned in the papyrus Ebers, 20

DISLOCATION OF SHOULDER, successfully reduced by Gabriel Bakhtichou, 207

DISSECTING OF HUMAN BODIES, early attempts, 309, 327, 331 practice approved by University of Salamanca, 346 practice made obligatory in the medical schools early in 18th century, 364

DISTEMPERS of the stiff and elastic fibres (Boerhaave), 442

DIVINE WATER of the alchemists, 321

DJONDISABOUR, early establishment of a medical school at, 184, 204

DOCTOR, when first employed as a title, 280

DODOENS, REMBERT (Dodonaeus), 395

DOGMATISTS, sect of the, 101, 103, 149

DONATO, MARCELLO, 396

DON CARLOS, OF SPAIN, skull severely injured, 485

DORVEAUX, PAUL, 548

DOUGLAS, JAMES, 361

DRACHMA, value of, 207

DRACO, SON OF HIPPOCRATES, 82

DRACUNCULUS MEDINENSIS, 233

DRUGS, enumerated by Homer in the Odyssey, 18 enumerated by Dioscorides, 18 remedial effects of, 398

DRY TREATMENT OF WOUNDS, 275, 285

DUBOIS, JACQUES (Sylvius), the anatomist, 340, 345

DYSENTERY, East Indian treatment of, 409

EAR, cherry pit in, 396 fatal disease of, 489

EAST INDIAN SURGEONS performed suprapubic cystotomy before the Christian era, 497

EBEN EL KHAMMAR, a distinguished Persian physician, 222

EBERS PAPYRUS, the, 20

ECLECTICS, THE, 142, 149

EGYPT, ANCIENT, practice of medicine in, 16, 17 process of embalming in, 17 temples were used as hospitals and as medical schools, as well as for purposes of worship, 19

EGYPTIANS, THE ANCIENT, surgical instruments used by, 21 surgical methods employed by, 21 therapeutics of, 20 they were good sanitarians, 23 they were the originators of many of the Mosaic laws, 27

ELEATIC SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY, 73

ELBOW-JOINT, EXARTICULATION OF, 508

ELECTRIC RAY, shocks communicated by, utilized in treatment of severe headache, 155

ELISHA THE PROPHET cures Naaman’s so-called leprosy, 27

EMBALMING, Egyptian process of, 17

EMIR ADHAD EDDOULA founds a great hospital at Bagdad, 219

EMPEDOCLES (444 B. C.) places the seat of the hearing in the labyrinth of the temporal bone, 80

EMPIRICS, sect of the, 101, 111, 149

ENCYCLOPAEDISTS, the, 156

EPICUREANS, the, 102

EPIDAURUS, in Argolis, Greece, 51

EPIONE, wife of Aesculapius, 50

ERASISTRATUS, 104, 106, 110 teachings of, with regard to nature of the blood and the circulation, 371

ERASMUS, on Linacre, 418

ÉTIENNE, ROBERT, 197

EUENOR, 99

EULER, LEONHARD, 360

EUPORISTA, title of Oribasius’ treatise, 192

EUPORISTON, title of treatise by Priscianus, 193

EUSTACHIUS, BARTHOLOMAEUS, 345, 348, 358, 384

EVIL SPIRITS, part played by, in producing disease, 8

EXERCISE, physical, not absolutely necessary to persons in normal health, 125

EXPERIENCE, great value attached to, by Hippocrates, 148

FABIOLA, the widow, established the first hospital in Rome, 235

FABRICIUS AB ACQUAPENDENTE, 349, 351, 378, 478

FABRICIUS OF HILDEN, 464

FACIAL HEMIPARESIS, sculptured in marble (Fig.), 68

FALLOPIUS or FALLOPPIUS, GABRIELE, 341, 348, 360, 393, 474, 478

FARRAGUT, of Girgenti, Sicily, 262

FAUST, JOHANNES, 322

FEDELES, FORTUNATUS, 398

FEES, MEDICAL, in Babylonia, 15

FEVER, NATURE OF, as taught by Sydenham, 423

FELDBUCH DER WUNDARTZNEY, von Gerssdorff’s, 462

FEMUR, FRACTURE OF, 510

FERMENT IN BLOOD the cause of small-pox (Rhazes), 220

FERNEL, JEAN, 414

FILARIA MEDINENSIS, removal of, from boy’s leg, 489

FINCKENSTEIN, 543

FISTULA IN ANO, John Arderne’s treatise on, 307

FLAMMULA, 522

FLINT KNIVES, 9

FLOS MEDICINAE, title of medical treatise, 251

FLOURENS, 374

FORAMEN BOTALLI, 413

FORCEPS for crushing stone in the bladder (Fig.), 497

FORCEPS, obstetrical, invention of, 535

FOREEST, PETER, 413

FORMULARY of Sabour ben Sahl, 209

FOSSEL, 391

FRA SARPI, 378

FRACASTORO, HIERONYMUS, 221, 362, 389, 391

FRANCO, PIERRE, 490, 494, 495, 497

FRANCONIAN OPERATION, revived in 1719 by John Douglas of London, 496

FREDERICK II., King of Sicily, promotes work of translating from the Arabic, 261

FREIND, JOHN, 184, 195, 416

FRÈRE JACQUES DE BEAULIEU, 550

FRIEDLAENDER, 3

GABRIEL, the most distinguished member of the Bakhtichou family, 207

GAIUS, OF NAPLES, a distinguished ophthalmologist, 115

GALE, THOMAS, 517

GALEAZZO DI SANTA SOFIA, Professor of Anatomy at Vienna, 311

GALEN, CLAUDIUS, 74, 160, 316, 344 on the nature of the blood, 372 on the true function of respiration, 372 on the treatment of wounds, 275 treatises written by, 167

GALENIC DOCTRINES, 400

GALENICAL PREPARATIONS, 317

GALENISM, meaning of the term, 388

GALENISTS, ENGLISH, in 17th century, 419

GALEN’S SYSTEM of therapeutics still used in Persia, 317

GALILEO, 546

GALLU, the demon who causes diseases of the hand, 13

GARIOPONTUS, a teacher at Salerno, 245, 247

GAS SYLVESTRE, 401

GEBER, credited with being the founder of chemistry, 233 now believed to be a mythical personage, 320

GENTILE DA FOLIGNO, 266

GERARD OF CREMONA, 227, 261

GERM ORIGIN of certain febrile diseases suspected by Rhazes, 221

GERMANY, devastated during the 17th century, 426 medical education in (from 1400 to 1600), 454

GERSSDORFF, HANS VON, 460

GESNER, CONRAD, 394

GILBERTUS ANGLICUS, 305, 516

GILLES DE CORBEIL, on urology, 255

GLADIATORS, SCHOOLS FOR, 68

GLAUBER’S SALT, 410

GLISSON, FRANCIS, 358, 546

GLOSSULAE QUATUOR MAGISTRORUM, 280

GORDONIUS, 296

GOURDON, BERNARD DE (Gordonius), 296

GOUT, remedy for, recommended by Aëtius, 195

GRAAF, REIGNIER DE, 359, 361

GRAPHEUS, BENEVENUTUS, celebrated eye surgeon of the 12th century, 256

GRAVES, ROBBING OF, for dissecting material, 309, 332, 336

GREAT BRITAIN, condition of surgery in, during 16th and 17th centuries, 516

GREEK PROVERBS relating to medicine, 77

GREGORY, BISHOP OF TOURS, 241

GRIFFON, JEAN, distinguished Genevese surgeon, 464

GUAIAC, inefficient anti-syphilitic remedy, 405

GUAINERIO, of Pavia, 496

GUARNA, REBECCA, 245

GUERICKE, OTTO VON, 546

GUIDO GUIDI (Vidus Vidius), the anatomist, 340

GUILLEMEAU, JACQUES, 536

GUISCARD, ROBERT, a resident at Salerno, 240

GULDINUS, PAUL, 409

GUNPOWDER, first employment of, in European warfare, 328

GUNSHOT WOUNDS, 467, 473

GURLT, VON, 455

GUY DE CHAULIAC, 227, 263, 298, 299, 310 founder of didactic surgery, 300 manner of treating injured nerves, 302 manner of treating fractures of the thigh, 304

GYMNASTIC EXERCISES, institutions for cultivating, 68

GYNAECOLOGISTS, EARLY, 115

GYNAECOLOGY successfully practiced by Soranus, 140

HALLER, ALBERT VON, 142, 344

HALY, ABBAS, a Persian physician and the author of the famous treatise called “Al-Maleky”--“The Royal Book,” 223

HAMMURABI’S LAW with reference to physicians’ fees in Babylonia, 15

HARDERWYK, UNIVERSITY OF, 439

HAROUN ALRASCHID, 206

HARVEY, WILLIAM, discoverer of the circulation of the blood, 379

HEAD, INJURIES OF (Wuertz), 467

HEART, anatomy of, according to de Mondeville, 289 physiology of, 377

HEIDELBERG, UNIVERSITY OF, 454

HELIODORUS, 202

HELVETIUS, 409

HEMORRHAGE FROM A WOUND, different means of arresting, 154, 277

HENRY THE SECOND’s manner of death, 511

HENSCHEL, researches of, 246

HERAKLEIDES, OF TARENTUM, 111

HERCULES an ancestor of Hippocrates, 81

HERMETIC BOOKS relating to medicine, 18

HERNIA, RADICAL CURE OF, by members of the Norsa family, 482

HERNIA-HEALERS, 490

HERODICUS, of Selymbria, 69

HERODOTUS, a different person from the famous historian, 26, 142

HEROPHILUS, a distinguished physician of Chalcedon, 104

HERZOG, excavations made by, at Cos, 55

HESYCHIOS, 201

HEURNIUS, JOHANNES, clinical teacher at Leyden, 429

HIGH OPERATION for stone in the bladder (le haut appareil), 495, 496

HIGHMORE, NATHANIEL, 359, 546

HINDU PHYSICIANS held very crude ideas about pathology, 31

HIPPOCRATES THE GREAT, 81, 82, 98, 411

HIPPOCRATIC OATH, 71

HIPPOCRATIC WRITINGS, French version of Littré, 83 German version of Fuchs, 84 short extracts, 89

HIRSCH, AUGUST, 399, 545

HOBEÏCH, 215

HOFMANN, MORITZ, 358

HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH, 431, 434

HOFFMANN’S ANODYNE, 437

HOMERIC POEMS probably written about B. C. 800, 46

HOMER’S FAMILIARITY WITH ANATOMY, 48

HONEIN, 208, 212, 214, 317

HOSPITAL GANGRENE, Wuertz’s views regarding, 469

HOSPITALS in the Middle Ages, 219, 235

HÔTEL-DIEU AT LYONS founded in the 6th century, 236, 450

HÔTEL-DIEU AT PARIS over-crowded in early part of 16th century (Fig.), 452

HRABANUS MAURUS, Abbot of Fulda Monastery, 241

HUGO BENZI (Hugo of Siena), 312

HUGO OF LUCCA, 275

HYDROTHERAPY at the Cos Asclepieion, 54 in the treatment of gout, 129

HYGIEIA, daughter of Aesculapius, 50

HYOSCYAMUS, when first used for dilating the pupils, 157

HYRTL, JOSEPH, 311, 356, 532

IATREIA, or small private hospitals, 68

IATROCHEMISTS and IATROPHYSICISTS in 17th century, 366

IBRAHIM, pupil of George Bakhtichou, 206

IDEA MORBOSA (Van Helmont), 399

ILEO-CAECAL VALVE, discovery of, 350

ILIAD AND ODYSSEY, references in, to medicine, 47

INDIA, ANCIENT, rich in skilful surgeons, 35

INDIA, great mortality in, from bites of venomous serpents, 64 the medicine of, 31

INGRASSIA, 349

INNOCENT XI., POPE, 392

INOCULATION against small-pox practiced by the Chinese in the 11th century, 43

INTENTION, healing by first, 277

INTESTINE, wounds of, 255, 459

IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY, 72

IPECACUANHA, discovery of, 408, 409

ISAAC, SON OF HONEIN, 215

ISIS, 19

ISOLA SAN BARTOLOMMEO, 51

ISRAELITES, medicine of the, 26, 27

ISSA BEN CHALATA, 205

ITINERANT LITHOTOMISTS, 549

JACOBUS PSYCHRESTOS, 201

JALAP, 395

JAMERIUS, author of “Chirurgia Jamati,” 255

JANISCUS, son of Aesculapius, 50

JAPANESE PHYSICIANS, modern, 45

JARDIN-DU-ROI, 540

JASO, daughter of Aesculapius, 50

JEAN DE VIGO, 472, 473

JEWISH MEDICAL STUDENTS, numerous at Montpellier, 265

JOHN of Arderne, 516 of Capua, 261 of Gaddesden, 305, 516 of Salisbury, 264 the Grammarian, of Alexandria, 185

JOURNALISM, MEDICAL, beginnings of, 545

JULIAN THE APOSTATE, Roman Emperor, 236, 435

JUSSERAND, 306

KERCKRING, THEODOR, 359

KING, EDMUND, 408

KITAB AL-KULLIDSCHAT (= “Colliget”), title of Averroes’ treatise, 229

KOELLIKER, 455

LABOULBÈNE, comments on Sydenham, 425

LABYRINTH of temporal bone, 80

LANCISI, GIOVANNI MARIA, 349, 391 discovers copper plates intended for Eustachius’ “Anatomy,” 392

LANFRANCHI, 282, 284

LANGUAGES, LEARNED, importance of acquiring a knowledge of them, 271

LANOLIN, described by Dioscorides in A. D. 100, 318

LAPEYRONIE, FRANÇOIS DE, 531

LARYNGOSCOPY, DIRECT, mentioned by Savonarola, 313

LATIN, barbaric, 262, 300 commonly employed by teachers of medicine in 16th and 17th centuries, 369 habitually spoken at Oxford and Cambridge in 17th century, 424

LAUDANUM, SYDENHAM’S LIQUID, formula for, 424

LAUREA ANGLICA, title of treatise written by Gilbertus Anglicus, 305

LAXATIVES, a term originated by the Methodists, 133

LAXUM AND STRICTUM, 130

LE CLERC, DANIEL, 73, 171

LE CLERC, LUCIEN, 217

LEECH lodged in the naso-pharynx, 397

LEECHES, therapeutic employment of, first mentioned by Themison, 133

LEEUWENHOEK, ANTON VAN, 360

LEG, AMPUTATION OF (Fig.), 463

LEIBNITZ, 363

LEONIDES, 201

LEONINE VERSIFICATION, 251

LEVRET, 539

LIBRARIES, PUBLIC, seventy possessed by Spain during the 12th century, 232

LIEBREICH, originator of the term “lanolin,” 318

LIGATURES applied to blood-vessels by Archigenes in the early part of 2d century, 143 employment of, by Jean de Vigo, in 1460, 473 used on amputation stumps, 519

LINACRE, THOMAS, 416 founded two “lectures of physick” at Oxford, 417 instrumental in securing the foundation of the College of Physicians at London, 417

LIQUOR BALSAMICUS, 357

LITHONTRIPSY, Giovanni de Romanis supposed to be the inventor of, 474

LITHOTOME OF FRÈRE CÔME (Fig.), 553

LITHOTOMISTS, ITINERANT, 490, 549

LITHOTOMY, SUPRAPUBIC, 495

LITHOTRITY practiced first by Beniveni in the 15th century, 498

LOUIS DE BOURGES, First Physician to Francis I., 414

LOUVAIN, UNIVERSITY OF, 345

LOWER, RICHARD, 408

LUCIUS VERUS, ROMAN EMPEROR, 165

LUCRUM NEGLECTUM, probable meaning of the expression, 353

LUKE, “THE BELOVED PHYSICIAN,” 30

LUTETIA, GAUL, the present city of Paris, 435

LUTHER, MARTIN, a believer in the “black art,” 322

LYMPHATICS, INTESTINAL, 385

LYONS, FRANCE, founding of the Hôtel-Dieu in that city (6th century), 236

MACHAON AND PODALIRIUS, sons of Aesculapius, 47, 50

MAGATI, CESARE, 529

MAGGI, BARTOLOMMEO, 473 discoverer of the fact that a bullet is not hot at moment of inflicting a wound, 513

MAGICAL REMEDIES, 197

MAGNUS, disciple of Athenaeus, 142

MAGREB, 218

MAIMONIDES, esteemed the greatest Jew after Moses, 230

MALEVOLENT SPIRITS, capable of producing disease, 8

MALPIGHI, 360, 361

MANARDUS, JOHANNES, 389

MANFRED, KING OF SICILY, 262 founds a university at Naples in 1258 A. D., 257

MANUSCRIPTS, MEDICAL, transcribing of, at Monastery of Saint Gall, 244

MARC ANTONIO DELLA TORRE, 339

MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman Emperor, 165

MARIANUS SANCTUS, 474

MARIOTTE, EDME, 546

MARTYRDOM OF CHRISTIAN PHYSICIANS, 180

MASTER OF MEDICINE, grade of, 304

MATERIA MEDICA, early Greek, 158 first modern treatise on (1447), 320

MAURICEAU, FRANÇOIS, 537

MAURUS, teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

MAYERNE, TURQUET DE, 547

MEAUX SAINT-MARC, translator of “Schola Salernitana” into French, 250

MEDIASTINITIS, case of, 228

MEDICAL TEACHING in Ancient Greece, 70, 85 in the Asclepieia, 69

MEDICAL TREATISES, GREEK, destruction of, in Rome, during the 5th century, 185

MEDICINE, beginnings of a rational system of, 67 development of different sects, after the death of Hippocrates, 101 evolution of, as affected by the Arab Renaissance, 203, 233 God of, 50 influence of the Italian Renaissance upon, 260 mediaeval, 191 practice of, at Rome, in century preceding Christian era, 117 pre-Homeric period of, in Greece, 46 relation of monasteries to, 238 slowness of development of, 3

MEDICINE MAN of the Indian tribes the earliest type of the physician, 8

MEDINA WORM discovered by Abulcasis, 233

MEMBRANA RUYSCHIANA, 357

MENELAÜS wounded at siege of Troy, 48

MENOCRITUS, physician, honored by a marble column in Greece, 99

MERCURIADE, teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

MESOPOTAMIA, medicine in, 11

MESUÉ, JOHN, THE ELDER, 209

METASYNCRISIS, a term originated by Thessalus, 136

METHODISTS, school of the, 129, 138, 149

MEYER, ERNEST VON, 400

MEYER-STEINEG, of Jena, Germany, 16, 52, 53, 68, 120, 129, 134, 142

MICHAEL SCOTUS, 262

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY, first beginnings of, 360, 362

MIGRAINE relieved by arteriotomy, 470

MIKROTECHNE of Galen, 248

MINDERER, RAYMOND, 407

MINERAL WATERS employed extensively by the ancients in the form of baths, 157

MIRACH, 521

MIRFELD, JOHN, 306

MISOPOGON, title of satire written by Julian the Apostate, 436

MITHRIDATES, 127

MITHRIDATICUM, composition of, 112

MIXTUM, term employed by the Methodists, 131

MOMMSEN, 235

MONASTERIES in the Middle Ages, 181, 235 relation of, to medicine, 238

MONDEVILLE, HENRI DE (Fig.), 287, 288, 289, 291

MONDINO, the anatomist, 274, 280, 312, 332

MONKS obliged to practice medicine during the Middle Ages, 141, 154

MONTE CASSINO, founding of Benedictine monastery on, 238, 239

MONTPELLIER, Medical School of, 264, 292, 332

MORBUS GALLICUS, 543

MOSAIC LAWS, the, related particularly to social hygiene, 26

MOSCHION, pupil of Soranus, 139

MOTASSEM, CALIPH, 210

MOXAE, MOXIBUSTION, 44

MURPHY’S BUTTON, Pfolspeundt’s (15th century) prototype of, 459

MUSA, ANTONIUS, physician of Emperor Augustus, 129

MUSANDINUS, 245, 254

MUSULMANS as zealous as the Christians in establishing hospitals, 237

NAAMAN’S SO-CALLED LEPROSY cured by the prophet Elisha, 27

NAMTAR, the special demon of the Plague, 13

NAPLES, university established at, in 1258 A. D., 257

NASAL CAVITY, illuminating the, 482

NEO-LATIN, 262

NEOLITHIC AGE, state of medical knowledge during the, 9

NEPENTHES, 49

NERVES, WOUNDS OF, comments of Guy de Chauliac upon, 302

NEUBURGER, MAX, 24, 41, 51, 84, 132, 222, 228, 231, 249

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC, 546

NICAISE, EDOUARD, 228, 263, 282, 287, 300

NICHOLAS, THE MONK, sent by the Emperor Romanus to Cordova as an interpreter of Dioscorides, 226

NICOLAUS MYREPSUS, 318

NICOLAUS PRAEPOSITUS, Antidotarium of, 253

NICOTINE, the alkaloid found in tobacco, 395

NORSA FAMILY, celebrated as operators for the radical cure of hernia, 482

NUCK, ANTON, the anatomist, 359, 439

NUFER, JACOB, 534

OATH, HIPPOCRATIC, 71

OBSTETRIC METHODS, rational, of Soranus, 138, 139

OBSTETRICAL FORCEPS, 535

OBSTETRICS, practice of, in ancient Egypt, 17

ODYSSEY, reference to drugs in the, 18

OIL OF ST. JOHN’S WORT, 522

OISYPUM (LANOLIN), first described by Dioscorides (100 A. D.), 318

OLD TESTAMENT, medicine of the, 26

OLEUM HYPERICI, 522

ONASILOS, a physician, bronze tablet in honor of (5th century B. C.), found in Island of Cyprus, 99

OPEDELDOCH, 404

OPHTHALMOLOGISTS, EARLY, 115

OPHTHALMOLOGY, important contributions to, 546

OPIUM, probably the drug referred to by term “nepenthes,” 49 proper manner of obtaining, first described by Scribonius Largus, 155 Sydenham’s opinion with regard to the value of, 424

OPORINUS, Paracelsus’ assistant, 404

ORDRONAUX, JOHN, 250, 252

ORIBASIUS, 191

ORIENTAL MEDICINE, 11

OSIRIS, or Serapis, 19

OVER-EATING, according to the ancient Egyptians, is the cause of the majority of diseases, 22

PADUA MEDICAL SCHOOL, 267, 352

PAGEL, 57

PALERMO, SICILY, a great centre of literary activity, 261

PANADOES, how prepared, 443

PANAKEIA, daughter of Aesculapius, 50

PANCREAS, outlet duct of, discovered in 1641, 358

PAPER, INVENTION OF, 328

PAPIN, DENIS, 547

PARACELSUS, 369, 401, 405, 465 monument in honor of, at Basel, 406 pharmaceutical preparations of, 404 sayings of, 403 treatises published by, 403

PARACENTESIS ABDOMINIS, 110, 124

PARAMIRUM, title of Paracelsus’ principal treatise, 403

PARCHMENT invented at Pergamum in 3d century B. C., 101

PARÉ, AMBROISE (Figs.), 404, 499, 500, 502, 515 abandons use of boiling oil, 503 arrests bleeding from divided blood-vessels by use of ligatures, 512 bitter jealousy shown by his contemporaries, 501 charge of plagiarism against him not sustained, 514 devises artery forceps and other surgical apparatus, 512 exarticulation of elbow-joint performed by him, 508 some of his sayings, 500, 501 summary of his more important achievements in surgery, 513 treatise on surgery not published in English until 1577, 518

PARIS MEDICAL SCHOOL, 282

PARMENIDES, 73

PARRENIN, FATHER, Jesuit missionary, 541

PASON (= APOLLO), who invented the art of medicine, 18

PASSAVANT, Dean of the Collège de St. Côme at Paris, 284

PASSIONARIUS, title of Gariopontus’ treatise, 247

PATHOLOGY, Fernel’s scheme of, 415 views held by Hippocrates, 86

PATHOLOGY, INTERNAL, 389

PATROCLUS dresses the wound of Eurypylus, 49

PAUL, THE APOSTLE, bitten by a poisonous snake on the Island of Melita, 29

PAULUS AEGINETA, 199, 227, 318

PECQUET, JEAN, rediscovers thoracic duct (in a dog), 384

PERICARDIUM, ABSCESS IN THE, Avenzoar refers to its actual occurrence, 229

PERIODEUTS or ambulant physicians, 75

PERSIANS, THE ANCIENT, medicine of, 25 took very little interest in surgery, 26

PETER THE GREAT purchases Ruysch’s anatomical collection, 356

PETRONCELLUS, a teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

PEYER, JOHANN CONRAD, 359

PFOLSPEUNDT, HEINRICH VON, 458, 460

PHARMACIST, early use of the term, 316

PHARMACOLOGY, earliest treatise on, published by Dioscorides in 77 A. D., 158

PHARMACOPOEIA, modern term for antidotarium, 319 Augsburg, compiled by Minderer, 407 modern, beginnings of, 547 of India, very rich, 33

PHARMACY, in its infancy, 315 first regularly established in the 8th century, 318

PHARMAKON, term employed by Galen for a remedial drug, 316

PHILINUS OF COS, 111

PHILOSOPHERS’ STONE, 321

PHILOSOPHY, SCHOOLS OF, in Greece and its colonies, 72

PHYSICIANS, consultation of (Fig.), 457 honored publicly in ancient Greece, 98, 99, 100 more highly esteemed than surgeons in 14th century, 304 suffered martyrdom for their Christian faith, 180

PHYSIOLOGY, HUMAN, views held by Hippocrates, 86

PIETRO D’ABANO, 266

PINEAU FAMILY, lithotomists, 549

PINI, anatomical draughtsman, 348, 392

PITARD, JEHAN, Surgeon of Louis IX., 448, 530

PITCAIRN, ARCHIBALD, 367

PLAGUE AT ATHENS, history of, by Thucydides, 96

PLAGUE, THE, avoidance of, by Galen, 164

PLANTS, MEDICINAL VIRTUES OF, 157

PLATEARIUS, John and Matthew, teachers of medicine at Salerno, 245

PLATO, 73, 78 views of, with regard to women physicians, 77

PLATTER, FELIX, 336, 396, 455 early experiences at Montpellier, 332

PLEURISY, Boerhaave’s manner of treating it, 444

PLINY THE ELDER, 155

PNEUMA, or breath, plays the most important rôle in the mechanism of life, 108 or vital spirit, 141

PNEUMATISM not popular with the physicians of Rome, 142

PNEUMATISTS, the, 141

PODALIC VERSION, 535, 537

PODALIRIUS, 47

POISONOUS SNAKES, loss of life caused by the bites of, 64

POLYBUS, son-in-law of Hippocrates, 82

POMPEII, physicians’ houses disinterred at, 315

PONS VAROLII, 350

PORES, system of, for conveyance of tissue juices, 122

PORTAL, PAUL, 539

POULTICES, too free use of, condemned, 467

POWER, D’ARCY, 307

PRACTICA CHIRURGIAE of Roger, 254

PRACTICA OCULORUM of Benevenutus Grapheus, 256

PRACTICA of Bartholomaeus, 248

PRACTICA of Cophon the Younger, 249

PRACTITIONERS, improper behavior of, in the sick room, 193

PRAEPOSITUS, meaning of the term, 253

PRAXAGORAS OF COS, 103 probably the first to distinguish the difference between arteries and veins, 103

PRAYER FORMULAE employed by the Babylonians as protective remedies, 13

PREGNANT WOMEN, dietetics of, 199

PREHISTORIC PERIOD of science of medicine, 4

PRE-HOMERIC PERIOD of medicine in Greece, 46

PRESCRIPTION WRITING first employed about A. D. 1400, 320

PRINTING, INVENTION OF, favored advance of science of medicine, 328

PRISCIANUS, THEODORUS, 192

PROKSCH, 543

PRZYMIOT, title of early Polish treatise on syphilis, 479

PTOLEMIES, learning greatly prospered under their reign, 100

PTOLEMY EUERGETES, OR PHYSCON, 116

PULSE, meaning of, according to Athenaeus, 142

PULSIFIC POWER OF ARTERIES (Galen), 381

PURKINJE’S BONE-CORPUSCLES, 362

PUSCHMANN, 70, 107, 196, 232, 257, 311, 365, 394

PYAEMIA, Wuertz’s views regarding, 469

PYTHAGORAS, 73, 74 medical doctrines propounded by, 147

PYTHON, Aesculapius represented in the presence of a, 65

QUINTESSENCES OF PARACELSUS, 405

QUINTUS, one of Galen’s teachers, 162

RABELAIS, FRANÇOIS, celebrated humorous writer, was a physician, 451

RABISU, the demon who causes diseases of the skin, 13

RAPHAEL’S CELEBRATED PAINTING showing Plato and Aristotle, 102

RATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEDICINE, beginnings of, in Greece, 67

RECIPES, BOOKS OF, take the place of physicians in Rome, 117

RED-HOT CAUTERY IRON too freely used for arresting bleeding, 466

REFRACTION, researches of Alhazen in regard to, 233

REGIMEN SANITATIS SALERNITANUM, 246 Arnold’s commentary on, 294

RELICS, SAINTLY, universal faith in their power to heal diseases, 241

REMEDIAL AGENTS, GENUINE, employed in Babylonia, 13

REMEDIES, HOUSEHOLD, Cato’s collection of, 123

RENAISSANCE, influence of, upon progress of medicine in Western Europe, 259

RENAN, ERNEST, 229, 231

RENZI, DE, on books written by physicians at Salerno, 246

REPERCUSSION, 526

RESPIRATION, physiology of, according to Erasistratus, 108 according to Aretaeus, 144

RETE MALPIGHI, 361

RHAZES, illustrious Persian physician, 219, 318

RHINOPLASTY in Italy in the 15th century, 459

RHODION, 533

RIOLAN, J., 360

ROESSLIN, EUCHARIUS, 533

ROGER’S PRACTICA, the oldest treatise on surgery written in Italy during the Middle Ages, 254

ROKITANSKY, the famous Viennese pathologist, advice of, to those about to study medicine, 3

ROLAND OF PARMA, 254, 279

ROMAN PHYSICIANS, of foreign birth, awarded rights of citizenship by Julius Caesar, 130

ROMANO PANE publishes first account of discovery of tobacco, 395

ROME, state of medicine at, after the death of Asclepiades, 129

ROSA ANGLICA, title of treatise written by John of Gaddesden, 306

ROUSSET, FRANÇOIS, 535

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, founding of, 363

RUDBECK, OLAUS, 358, 385

RUFUS OF EPHESUS, 145, 146

RUYSCH, FRIEDRICH, the anatomist, 356, 358

SABOUR BEN SAHL, 209

SAGE FEMME, possible origin of the term, 247

SAINT BARTHOLOMEW’S HOSPITAL, London, 524

SAINT BASIL, founder of a hospital at Caesarea, 236

SAINT CÔME, COLLÈGE DE, 490

SAINT COSMAS AND SAINT DAMIAN, Brotherhood of, 530

SALADIN OF ASCOLO, author of first modern treatise on materia medica, 320

SALADIN, SULTAN OF EGYPT, 225

SALAMANCA, UNIVERSITY OF, 346

SALERNO MEDICAL SCHOOL, 243, 244, 265 women teachers at, 245

SALICETO, WILLIAM OF, 277

SALMOUÏH BEN BAYAN, a distinguished pupil of the Djondisabour school, 210

SALVINO DEGLI ARMATI of Florence, reputed inventor of spectacles, 297

SANCTORIUS SANCTORINUS, 368

SANDWITH, DR. F. M., concerning the most ancient surgical implements thus far discovered, 9

SANGUIFICATION, Galen’s theory of, 385

SANITARY SCIENCE in the 15th century, 314

SAPIENZA, UNIVERSITY OF, at Rome, 391

SARSAPARILLA, 395

SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MICHELE, 313

SCHIELHANS, nickname of Hans von Gerssdorff, 460

SCHNEIDER, CONRAD VICTOR, 359

SCHOOL OF SALERNO, title of poem, 250

SCHOOLS, significance of the term, 74

SCOTUS OR SCOTTUS, 262

SCRIBONIUS LARGUS, 155, 413

SECTS IN MEDICINE, 101, 147, 149

SEPTICAEMIA, Wuertz’s views regarding, 470, 471

SERAPION THE ELDER, 210

SERAPIS OR OSIRIS, 19

SERPENT, significance of the, in the statues and votive tablets exposed to view in the Aesculapian temples, 62

SERVETUS, MICHAEL, 375 on the circulation of the blood, 376

SHOULDER, DISLOCATION OF, cured by Gabriel Bakhtichou, 207

SIMON JANUENSIS, 261

SISMONDI, THE HISTORIAN, 116

SKULL, FRACTURES OF, 286, 476

SLAVES SOLD BY ROMANS when they became old and feeble, 235

SLEEP-WALKING, instance of, narrated by Alderotti, 273

SMALL-POX described by Herodotus, 142 earliest treatise upon, 220 Gaddesden’s successful treatment of, 306 prophylactic inoculation against, 43

SMITH, SIR WILLIAM, 103

SNAKE, POISONOUS, treatment of bite by, 110

SNAKEROOT, an antidote for poisoning by the bite of a snake, 7

SOBIESKI, KING OF POLAND, purchases Ruysch’s second anatomical collection, 358

SOCIAL HYGIENE, the Mosaic laws relate particularly to, 26

SOCRATES, 73

SOPORIFIC SPONGES, 253

SORANUS OF EPHESUS, 138, 139, 159 rational obstetric methods of, 139

SOUL, SPIRIT OF THE, 291

SOUL, THE, is the blood, according to Servetus, 376

SPAIN, medicine flourished in, during the 10th century, 226

SPANISH SURGEONS of the 16th century, 484

SPECIALIZATION in medicine, 114

SPECTACLES, use of, first mentioned by Gordonius (A. D. 1285), 297

SPECULUM, aural, employed by Jean de Vigo, 473 majus, of Vincent Beauvais, 270 vaginal, of Paulus Aegineta, 201

SPINE, CURVATURE OF, 313

SPIRIT, THE, 291, 374 disorders of, 141 of Mindererus, 407

SPLENIA, 526

SPLINTS made with bundles of straw, 304

SPRENGEL, KURT, 342

SPRINGS, EUROPEAN, in 16th century, 323

STAHL, GEORG ERNST, 431 doctrine of animism, 432 his “phlogiston,” 433 treatise on “theoria medica vera,” 432

STENO, NICHOLAS (Niels Stensen), 359

STIBIUM, 158

STOICS, THE, 102

STONE IN THE BLADDER, cutting for, 494 Gaddesden’s peculiar method of treating, 306 method of operating kept a secret by lithotomists, 447

STRANGULATED HERNIA, Franco’s operation for, 492

STRATON, a skilful gynaecologist, 115

STRAW SPLINTS, for use in fractures, 304

STRICTUM AND LAXUM, terms employed by the Methodists, 130 Boerhaave adopts the doctrine, 442

STYRUS, one of Galen’s teachers, 162

SUGGESTION, power of, over the human mind, 241

SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS constitute one of the most extraordinary characteristics of the human race, 10

SURGEON, characteristics which he should possess, 285

SURGEONS OF THE LONG ROBE, a name given to members of the Collège de St. Côme, 448

SURGERY, considered a menial occupation during the Renaissance (Fig.), 306, 447 early, in Great Britain, 516, 523 strong prejudice against among French physicians of the 15th century, 300 systematic instruction in, first given at Montpellier in 1597, 448

SURGICAL OPERATIONS in the age of primitive medicine, 8

SUSRUTA, celebrated East Indian medical author, 31

SWAMMERDAM, JOHN, 356

SYDENHAM, THOMAS, 418 a great sufferer from gout, 421 describes an “inflammation of the blood,” 423 experience with the great epidemic of the Plague, 421 on the nature of fever, 423 treatises published by, 419

SYLVIUS (Franz de le Boë), 367, 427 clinical instruction cultivated by him at Leyden, 428, 429 treatises published by him, 428

SYLVIUS, THE ANATOMIST, 340

SYPHILIS, 473, 542 poem relating to, 391

SYRIAC ULCER (known to-day as pharyngeal diphtheria), 144

SYRINGE, earliest reference to use of, to be found in Abulcasis’ treatise on surgery, 227

SYRINGOTOME, 313

SZANDALANI, Arabic name for pharmacists, 318

TAGLIACOTIAN OPERATION, the so-called, 478, 480

TAGLIACOZZI, GASPARE, 478

TALISMANS, amulets, etc., as means of protection against evil spirits, 9, 13

TEISSIR, THE, Avenzoar’s great medical work, 228, 230

TELESPHORUS, son of, Aesculapius, 50

TEMPLE PRIESTS in ancient Egypt, 17

TEMPLE SLEEP at the Asclepieia, 57

TEMPLES, AESCULAPIAN, their chief purpose, 51

TENTS, PRACTICE OF EMPLOYING, in the treatment of wounds, condemned, 466

TESRIF, THE, written by Abulcasis (= Alsaharavius), 227

TETANUS, TRAUMATIC, Lanfranchi’s treatment of, 285

THADDEUS ALDEROTTI, 272

THALES, of Miletus, 72

THEMISON, founder of the sect of the Methodists, 130 the first to mention the employment of leaches, 133

THEODORIC OF LUCCA, 276

THEODORUS, a disciple of Athenaeus, 142

THESSALUS, SON OF HIPPOCRATES, 82, 133

THESSALUS, OF TRALLES, in Asia Minor, a prominent Methodist, 133

THIERRY DE HÉRY, 499

THIGH, amputation of, probably performed in early part of Christian era, 470 fractures of, 304

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, THE, 426

THOMAS AQUINAS, a believer in the art of the magician, 321

THORACIC DUCT, 384

THOT OR THOÜT (Hermes), the god, author of the hermetic books, 18, 19

THUCYDIDES, 96

TIRABOSCHI, 338, 378

TOBACCO, 395

TOLEDO, SPAIN, richly stocked with manuscript treasures of Arabic literature, 261

TOLET, FRANÇOIS, 550

TOLU, BALSAM OF, 395

TORCULAR HEROPHILI, 105

TORRICELLA, 546

TOSORTHOS, 17

TOUCHING, for the “King’s evil,” 527, 528

TRACHEOTOMY performed by Asclepiades (90 B. C.), 124 revived by Antonio Beniveni in the 15th century, 498

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, 408

TRANSMUTATION OF BASER METALS INTO GOLD, 321

TRAUTMANN, of Wittenberg, 535

TREPHINE, circular pattern of, 473

TREPHINING THE SKULL a very ancient surgical operation, 9 Wuertz slow in resorting to the operation, 467

TRIKKA, THESSALY, 51

TROTULA, a teacher of medicine at Salerno, 245

TUBERCULOSIS, virus of, long-lived, according to Fracastoro, 390

TURQUET DE MAYERNE, 547

TYDIDES, who smote Aeneas, 49

ULCERS, treatment of, according to the method of Thessalus, 135

UROSCOPY eagerly adopted by charlatans in 16th century (Fig.), 412 strongly denounced by Scribonius, Botallo and others, 413

UTUKKU, the demon who causes diseases of the throat, 13

VAGBHATA, a celebrated East Indian medical author, 31

VALERIUS CORDUS, 318

VALVES, DISCOVERY OF, IN THE LARGER VEINS, 378

VAN HELMONT, 398 “archaeus influus” and “archaeus insitus,” 399 characteristic sayings, 400 remarkable remedies manufactured by him, 399

VAN SWIETEN introduces clinical instruction at the University of Vienna, 431

VAROLIUS, 349

VEIN should be opened longitudinally in venesection, 286

VENA PORTAE, 385

VENESECTION, Celsus’ description of technical details, 152 quantity of blood that may be withdrawn, 413 spot from which blood should preferably be taken, 411

VENOUS ARTERY (pulmonary vein), 371

VENOUS BLOOD, FUNCTION OF, 373

VERSIFICATION employed in medical treatises, 251

VERSION, PODALIC, 535

VESALIUS, 340, 342, 345, 347, 370, 374, 456

VICQ D’AZYR, 532

VICTOR III., POPE, 239

VIDUS VIDIUS, 340

VIEUSSENS, RAYMOND, 364

VILLALOBOS, 542

VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS, 270 encyclopaedia of, 263

VINDICIANUS, 192

VIPER, cases of persons bitten by, 488, 507

VIS CONSERVATRIX ET MEDICATRIX NATURAE (Stahl), 432

VITAL FORCE, Stahl’s, 405

VITAL SPIRIT, Galen’s, 376

VIVISECTION OF CRIMINALS utilized at Alexandria, Egypt, for scientific purposes, 107

VIZIR ALI BEN ISSA founds a great hospital at Bagdad in A. D. 914, 219

VOLCHER KOYTER, 349

WATER, CONTAMINATED, purification of, by distillation, 305 of river Choaspes, ready boiled for use and stored in flagons of silver, carried by King Cyrus on his campaigns, 26

WECKER, JOHANN JACOB, 521

WEIGHT-AND-PULLEY TREATMENT of thigh fractures, Guy de Chauliac’s, 304

WHARTON, THOMAS, 359, 546

WILLIAM OF SALICETO, 277

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR a patient at Salerno, 245

WILLIS, THOMAS, 360, 367, 546

WINE, Galen’s use of, in dressing wounds, 163 proper employment of, according to Asclepiades, 125 Thalassite, 126

WINTER, OF ANDERNACH, 340

WIRSUNG, GEORGE, discovers outlet duct of human pancreas, 358

WISEMAN, RICHARD, 524

WOMEN INSTRUCTORS IN MEDICINE highly esteemed at Salerno, 246

WOMEN PHYSICIANS among the Arabs in Spain, during the 12th century, 232

WOODALL, JOHN, 522

WOUNDS, DRY METHOD OF TREATING, 275, 285 too frequent probing of, condemned, 466

WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER, 408

WUERTZ, FELIX, 465 condemns universal employment of chemical caustics and the red-hot iron for arresting bleeding, 466 remarks on pyaemia, hospital gangrene and septicaemia, 469, 471 remarks on treatment of penetrating wounds of abdomen, 469

WUNDAERZTE, 369

XENODOCHIA, institutions for the care of slaves, 235

XENOPHON, C. STERTINIUS, 54

YPERMAN, JEHAN, a distinguished Flemish physician of 14th century, 309

ZEND-AVESTA, THE, 25

ZENO, founder of the Stoic philosophy, 103

ZERBI, GABRIEL, professional visit of, to Constantinople, cost him his life, 337

ZEUXIS, organizer of a medical school at Laodicea, 111

ZIRHACH, 521

ZIRBUS, 521

ZOPYRUS classified drugs according to the effects which they produce, 111

ZOSIMOS, of Panopolis, 321

FOOTNOTES:

A third volume is in course of preparation, but the probable date of its publication has not been announced. An English translation of the first volume (by Ernest Playfair) was published by Hodder and Stoughton, of London, in 1910.

Book I., section 197, of Rawlinson’s translation.

From the statements just quoted it appears that a certain kind of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin, with the addition perhaps of a little zinc) was used in Assyria, in the manufacture of surgical knives, as early as during the twenty-third century B. C. Dr. Meyer-Steineg, Professor of the History of Medicine in the University of Jena, Germany, assures the writer that knives made of this material are susceptible of being given as keen a cutting edge as are those made of the best of steel. At least one such bronze knife may be seen in the collection of ancient surgical instruments, votive offerings, etc., which he is making for the benefit of the University.

A Christian ecclesiastical writer who lived about the year 200 A. D.

Lines 285–292 of Book IV. of the Earl of Derby’s translation, first published in 1864.

Pason is the same as Apollo, who was believed by the Greeks to have been the inventor or discoverer of the art of medicine.

See Le Clerc’s Histoire de la Médecine, Amsterdam, 1723.

At bottom of p. 15 of his Histoire de la Médecine.

Papyros Ebers, aus dem Aegyptischen zum ersten Male vollständig ubersetzt von H. Joachim, Berlin, 1890.

Book I., p. 96, of George Rawlinson’s translation.

Neuburger speaks of the growth of medical knowledge in India as a development that ran parallel with that of ancient Greece.

From Neuburger.--Equally crude are their ideas respecting the causes of disease, as shown by the following items selected from quite a long list of etiological factors: errors in diet and in the habits of life, climatic influences, psychic factors, heredity, poison, supernatural influences like the anger of the gods, the evil powers of demons, etc. For purposes of diagnosis the earlier Indian physicians utilized not only inspection, palpation and auscultation, but also the senses of taste and smell. They noted the losses and increases in the weight of the body, changes in the appearance of the skin, the tongue and the excretions, alterations in the configuration of the body, the form and other characteristics of swellings, etc. They also noted changes in the patient’s voice, in the character of the breathing, in the noises accompanying movements of the joints and the twistings of the intestines. The crepitus caused by the rubbing together of the roughened ends of a fractured bone did not escape their notice. At a later period, doubtless through the influence of the teachings of foreign physicians, they attached great importance to the examination of the pulse.

Nepenthes, believed to be opium, is the word employed in the original.

Aesculapius was held to be the son of Apollo, the god of medicine, and to have been instructed in the art of healing by Chiron, one of the centaurs. Beside his famous sons, Machaon and Podalirius, he had four daughters whose names--Hygieia, Jaso, Panakeia and Aigle--have come down to us through the ages. His wife’s name was Epione, and those of his two younger sons were Telesphorus and Janiscus, but all three of these names are rarely mentioned by the Greek writers.

“Kranken-Anstalten im griechisch-römischen Altertum,” von Dr. med. et jur. Theodor Meyer-Steineg, a. o. Professor an der Universität Jena; Verlag von G. Fischer, 1912.

“Kranken-Anstalten im griechisch-romischen Altertum,” in Jenaer medizin.-historische Beiträge, Jena, 1912.

All important traces of the earlier structures seem to have disappeared.

The Emperor Antoninus Pius, in order to provide properly for these patients, erected at Epidaurus a special building in which confinement cases and those likely to end fatally might be lodged.

The slave of Chremulos.

To save space the head of the god alone has been reproduced in Fig. 5.

Histoire de la Médecine, Amsterdam, 1723.

The word “school,” when employed in the strictly modern sense of that term, means an establishment regularly organized for the purpose of giving instruction. Here, however, it is intended to signify simply that certain places, like Cos, Crotona, Cnidus, etc., had become the rendezvous of men who desired to cultivate--some as teachers, others as disciples or pupils--certain branches of knowledge, or certain doctrines. At a later period (third century B. C.) there was established at Alexandria, Egypt, a well-organized school of medicine closely resembling those of modern times.

All of these are translations from the French.

The city of Cnidus was situated very close to the Island of Cos, on a peninsula that projects from the coast of Caria, Asia Minor.

Black bile, it was believed, comes from the spleen, while the yellow variety is a product of the liver.

Daremberg (Hist. de la Méd.) makes the following comments on this sentence: “How many are the occasions when we physicians would have it in our power to avert death, or at least to postpone it for a few hours, if we would only engrave upon our memories these words of the old man of Cos! ‘What a cruel responsibility rests upon those whose duty it is to summon the doctor at the proper moment! And how great must be the remorse if he fails to arrive in time!’ On the other hand, how wise is the remark of Celsus: ‘The best practitioner is he who never loses sight of his patients.’”

After Alexandria first came under Roman rule (about 30 B. C.) membership in the Museum was granted to athletes and other men of no education, and it is said that even before that time Ptolemy Euergetes, who had reopened the schools during the latter part of his reign, bestowed some of the important positions upon men who were simply his favorites. The library of the Museum was seriously damaged by fire at the time when Julius Caesar was being besieged in Alexandria by the inhabitants of that city, and was at last wholly destroyed by Amrou, the Lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in A. D. 651. The truth of this extraordinary tale regarding the burning of books belonging to the library at Alexandria in the seventh century is seriously doubted by Sismondi (Histoire de la Chute de l’Empire Romain, Vol. II., p. 57). “It was,” he says, “published for the first time, by Abulpharagius, about six centuries after the event is supposed to have occurred. And yet the contemporaneous national historians, Entychius and Elmacin, make no mention of it whatever. An act of this nature, furthermore, would be in direct conflict with the precepts of the Koran and with the profound respect which the Mohammedans habitually entertain for every scrap of paper on which the name of God happens to be written.”

Under the later rule of the Romans, Alexandria regained a good deal of its literary importance and also became a chief seat of Christianity and theological learning; but as a centre of medical influence its glory had long since departed.

Asclepiades was not a descendant of Aesculapius, as one would naturally infer from the name which he bore.

It would not be easy to fix, even approximately, the date when remedies of this character ceased to find acceptance in the popular mind of Europeans, but there can be no doubt that they were employed rather frequently even as late as during the eighteenth century;--indeed, measures that strongly smack of superstition are now and then looked upon with favor by the well-educated members of our modern society. For many centuries, however, they have been abandoned by all physicians excepting those who are unworthy to bear that honored title.

Neither Haller nor Dezeimeris furnishes any biographical information with regard to Musa.

Antoninus Pius, however, established the rule that these privileges were not to be granted to all physicians indiscriminately, but only to a limited number; and, later still, it was decided that only the parish physicians were entitled to receive them.

It seems almost unnecessary to call attention to the fact that the subject of these remarks is not to be confounded with Thessalus, the son of Hippocrates.

Ἰατρονίκης is the word employed in the original Greek.

The word “metasyncrisis,” as we are assured by Le Clerc, was employed first by Cassius, one of the earlier disciples of Methodism, and then, long after the time of Thessalus, by Galen, Oribasius, Aëtius and Paulus Aegineta.

Le Clerc calls attention to the incorrectness--etymologically speaking--of the use of the word “Eclectics” in connection with a school or sect. The members of such a body are not, he says, “the chosen ones” as the term signifies, but “the choosers.”

Boerhaave, the famous clinician of Leyden, Holland (eighteenth century), was instrumental in having an excellent Latin translation made of this work; and in 1858 a German translation by A. Mann was published in Halle.

Translated from Oeuvres de Rufus d’Éphèse; édition Grecque et Française, par Daremberg et Ruelle, Paris, 1879.

The term “dogmatists” is also employed by some authorities to designate those physicians who laid great stress upon the importance of following the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen.

The majority of the writings of Galen are reported to have been kept, for safe preservation, in the Temple of Peace, near the Forum; and the destruction of this building by fire, during the latter half of the second century, entailed the loss of all these valuable works.

Book VI., Chapter XVII. (page 441 of Vol. I. of Daremberg’s version).

In his Commentaries on the works of Hippocrates (Epidemic Diseases, III., t. XVII. B. § 4) Galen states that he has often observed this to-and-fro movement of the alae nasi in certain cases of illness and that he has interpreted it as indicating the existence of some serious disorder of the respiratory tract. (Daremberg.)

Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erasistratus, Asclepiades, Themison, Celsus, Soranus and Athenaeus. Daremberg calls attention to the fact that, although we possess to-day only a few fragments of the writings of Archigenes, those few are of such a degree of excellence that we may well ask ourselves whether Galen was not perfectly justified in placing such a high estimate as he appears to have done upon the merits of this writer,--and that, too, notwithstanding the unfavorable criticism which he makes in the present paragraph about the author’s failure at times to write with sufficient clearness on medical subjects.

John the Grammarian, whose nativity is not stated by Le Clerc, was at first a simple boatman who ferried back and forth those who attended a school which was located on one of the islands at Alexandria. As a result of his frequent talks with these men, he became enamored with philosophy and decided, notwithstanding his age (forty years), to devote himself entirely to the study of the subject. Accordingly, he sold his boat and attended the lectures regularly, becoming at last an expert in philosophy. He wrote several important treatises and commentaries, some of them dealing with medical topics, and he also made a number of translations from the Greek into Arabic.

Third edition, London, 1726.

Anthemius is also credited with being the inventor of the principle of dome construction in architecture.

Also written Paulus Aeginetes.

The account which is given in this and the following chapters is based largely on Dr. Lucien Le Clerc’s Histoire de la Médecine Arabe, Paris, 1876.

Le Clerc and Freind mention both Nishapur and Djondisabour as the name of the capital of the Province of Khorassan in northeast Persia.

The drachma was a silver coin worth about 9¾ pence English money. The fee paid to Gabriel for his surgical services amounted, therefore, to a little less than £2000 or $10,000.

To distinguish him from Mesué the Younger, who lived at Cairo, Egypt, about one hundred years later, and who attained considerable celebrity on account of the treatises which he wrote on materia medica.

For further remarks concerning the origin of the Teïssir see page 229.

According to tradition the medical school at Salerno was founded by four physicians--Adela, an Arab; Helinus, a Jew; Pontus, a Greek; and Salernus, a Latin.

Perhaps the French title “sage-femme” originated from this.

There can be no question, says Neuburger (in agreement with Daremberg), about the truth of the statement that Constantinus allowed the authorship of several of the treatises issued at Salerno under his name to be attributed to himself--as, for example, the “Liber Pantegni” (Pantechni), which is in reality the “Liber Regalis” of Haly Abbas; the “Pieticum,” which is fundamentally the work of Ibn-al-Dschezzar; the “De Oculis,” which is based upon Honein ben Ischak’s treatise on opthalmology; and still other works which it is not necessary to specify.

Under the heading “Epilogus” on pages 268 and 269 of Meaux Saint-Marc’s version.

Examples of leonine versification: “Contra vim mortis, nulla est herba in hortis”; (p. 155 of Saint-Marc’s version) and (from Shelley’s Cloud) “I am the daughter of the earth and water.”

The term “praepositus” means the president or the dean of the school with which the person named is connected.

The Opus majus, ed. J. H. Bridges, Oxford, 1897 (2d edition, 1900); opera hactenus inedita, ed. B. Steele, Fasc. I., London.

Aurei. The aureus is said to have been worth about 16 shillings, English money.

A church official to whom was intrusted the duty of granting dispensations; “Almoner” is perhaps the equivalent term in English.

“Non enim est necesse saniem--sicut Rogerius et Rolandus scripserunt et plerique eorum discipuli docent, et fere omnes cururgici moderni servant--in vulneribus generare. Iste enim error est major quam potest esse. Non est enim aliud, nisi impedire naturam, prolongare morbum, prohibere conglutinationem et consolidationem vulneris.” (II., cap. 27.)

The most recent edition of this work is a French translation made by P. Pifteau and published at Toulouse, in 1898.

According to Daremberg (Histoire des Sciences Médicales, Vol. I., p. 264) the title “Doctor” appears for the first time in the Preface of Roger’s treatise (1180 A. D.).

“La Grande Chirurgie de Guy de Chauliac,” Paris, 1890.

The distinguishing sign of the barbers was the shaving dish, made of pewter and hung up at the door of the shop; that employed by the surgeons was also a shaving dish, but made of polished brass. Those surgeons who had received their training at the school of Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian were permitted to display at the window a banner bearing the coat of arms of this institution.

The surgeons Cosmas and Damian were chosen patron saints of the new organization. They were born in Arabia in the third century, and are said to have been educated there. After having practiced medicine for a certain length of time in Sicily, they were tortured and killed, because of their Christian faith, by order of the Emperor Diocletian, 303 A. D. Hence the title “Saints.”

Guy de Chauliac, who wrote a treatise on surgery in the latter half of the fourteenth century, also speaks of the value of this diagnostic sign.

See remarks on the subject of amulets, etc., on pages 197, 198.

A small town in the Department of Lot, France. The earliest Norman ancestors of the Gurdon family in England are said to have derived their name from that of this town.

Introduction to the “Oeuvres d’Ambroise Paré,” Paris, 1840.

“Gaddesden had for a long time been troubled how to cure stone: ‘At last,’ says he, in his Rosa Anglica, ‘I thought of collecting a good quantity of those beetles which in summer are found in the dung of oxen, also of the crickets which sing in the fields. I cut off the heads and the wings of the crickets and put them with the beetles and common oil into a pot; I covered it and left it afterwards for a day and night in a bread oven. I drew out the pot and heated it at a moderate fire, I pounded the whole and rubbed the sick parts; in three days the pain had disappeared;’ under the influence of the beetles and the crickets the stone was broken into bits. It was almost always thus, by a sudden illumination, that this doctor discovered his most efficacious remedies: Madame Trote [Trotula] of Salerno never confided to her agents in various parts of the world the secret of more marvelous and unexpected recipes.” (From Jusserand’s “English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages.”)

Some weeks later our fellow voyager, Thomas Schoepfius, wrote to me that, on the return journey, he learned at Berne that “Long Peter,” the leader of the Mézières robbers, had been apprehended by the authorities and executed for his crimes; and that, when stretched on the rack, he had confessed, among other things, that he had tried to murder and rob some students who passed through Mézières on their way to Lausanne.

Also often spelled “Falloppius.”

The meaning of this Latin inscription can best be appreciated by those physicians who have, through a long period of years, practiced their profession largely among the well-to-do classes of a metropolitan city. They alone, I believe, would understand the significance of “lucrum neglectum” as applied to a large proportion of the gifts which a practitioner of medicine receives from grateful patients; and it is not at all likely that a layman who is not familiar with this aspect of a physician’s life would, under the circumstances mentioned, have the slightest suspicion that the device quoted above could possibly bear the meaning that I have given to it.

See F. Loeffler: “Vorlesungen uber die geschichtliche Entwickelung der Lehre von den Bakterien,” Leipzig, 1887, Th. 1; and also p. 310 of Puschmann’s “Geschichte des Medicinischen Unterrichts,” Leipzig, 1889.

The iatrophysicists and the iatromathematicians constituted apparently two kindred branches of the same school.

An edition of the completed set of these plates was published by Lancisi at Rome in 1714.

Translated from the French version printed by Daremberg in his Histoire de la Médecine, Vol. II, p. 706. The originals of Sydenham’s writings are all in Latin.

Pronounced by Haeser to be a compilation, and not one of Sydenham’s genuine writings.

Physicians who maintain that all physiological and pathological phenomena may be explained by the laws of physics.

“Gründliches Bedenken und physicalische Anmerkungen von dem tödtlichen Damff der Holzkohlen,” Halle, 1716.

Probably this refers simply to a brazier containing burning charcoal, the light emitted by which would doubtless be sufficient to answer the purpose of a night lamp.

A small seaport town located on the Zuider Zee, about thirty miles northeast of Amsterdam. The university, which was founded there in 1648, was abandoned in 1818.

Quoted from the English translation mentioned above.

Bread boiled in water to the consistence of pulp.

The modern operation known as litholapaxy.

The word “centuria” is employed here in the sense of “a group of one hundred.”

Not Amatus, but a specialist. See remark near the top of page 488.

Orange, which is only a short distance from Avignon and Turriers, was ceded to France in 1713.

In the absence of a more fitting place in which to speak of the employment of urethral bougies, it seems permissible to state here that the first mention (in medical literature) of these instruments occurs in Chapter XV. of the treatise of Guainerio, Professor of Medicine at the University of Pavia. This work, which was first published in 1439, bears the title: “Practica Antonii Guainerii,” and a later edition was issued at Venice in 1508. Speaking of a case of stone in the bladder, Guainerius says: “And if the urine does not flow from the bladder ... introduce a slender flexible rod of tin or silver into the urethra.”

Franco calls it the “high operation” or “hypogastric lithotomy.”

After I had written the preceding description of Franco’s new method of extracting a calculus from the urinary bladder, I learned, from Haeser’s account of the surgical writings of Susrutas in the Ayur-Veda (Sanscrit), that already before the Christian era (the exact date is not known) the surgeons of East India had performed this very operation. This fact, however, could not possibly have been known to Franco, who--so far as modern surgeons are concerned--should continue to be looked upon as the real inventor of suprapubic cystotomy.--AUTHOR.

The fact that bullets are not hot when they inflict a wound was proven experimentally by Bartolommeo Maggi several years earlier, but Paré makes no reference to this fact.

Johann Jacob Wecker (1528–1586), born at Basel, Switzerland, and author of a treatise entitled “Practica medicinae generalis” (Basel, 1585).

In this instance I have thought it best to modernize the spelling of several of the words.

Not healing in a healthy manner.

Driving back.

Haeser speaks of Wiseman as having gained considerable distinction by the careful manner in which he made provision for the flaps in his amputations.

“Observations diverses sur la stérilité, etc.,” Paris, 1609.

For a confirmation of this statement see the poem on syphilis (“Enfermedad de las Bubas”) written by the Spanish physician Francesco Lopez de Villalobos and published by him in 1498 at Salamanca. The employment of mercurial inunctions is also mentioned in this poem.

Physicians who had served at Rome as the regular medical attendants of Pope Alexander the Sixth.

“Die Geschichte der venerischen Krankheiten,” Bonn, 1895.

“Zur Geschichte der Syphilis,” Breslau, 1870.

Transcriber’s Notes:

1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently.

2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original.

3. Italics are shown as xxx.