Part 28

Theophrast. Fr. 5 a; Galen, in Hipp. d. n. h. xv. 35 K.; Dox. 481. Several of the commentators have made false statements about Xenophanes, as for instance Sabinos, who uses almost these very words: ‘I say that man is not air, as Anaximenes taught, nor water, as Thales taught, nor earth, as Xenophanes says in some book;’ but no such opinion is found to be expressed by Xenophanes anywhere. And it is clear from Sabinos’s own words that he made a false statement intentionally and did not fall into error through ignorance. Else he would certainly have mentioned by name the book in which Xenophanes expressed this opinion. On the contrary he wrote ‘as Xenophanes says in some book.’ Theophrastos would have recorded this opinion of Xenophanes in his abridgment of the opinions of the physicists, if it were really true. And if you are interested in the investigation of these things, you can read the books of Theophrastos in which he made this abridgment of the opinions of the physicists.

Hipp. Philos. i. 14; Dox. 565. Xenophanes of Kolophon, son of Orthomenes, lived to the time of Cyrus. He was the first to say that all things are incomprehensible, in the following verses: (Frag. 14) ‘For even if one chances for the most part to say what is true, still he would not know; but every one thinks he knows.’ And he says that nothing comes into being, nor is anything destroyed, nor moved; and that the universe is one and is not subject to change. And he says that god is eternal and one, homogeneous throughout, limited, spherical, with power of sense-perception in all parts. The sun is formed each day from small fiery particles which are gathered together; the earth is infinite, and is not surrounded by air or by sky; an infinite number of suns and moons exist, and all things come from earth. The sea, he said, is salt because so many things flow together and become mixed in it; but Metrodoros assigns as the reason for its saltness that it has filtered through the earth. And Xenophanes believes that once the earth was mingled with the sea, but in the course of time it became freed from moisture; and his proofs are such as these: that shells are found in the midst of the land and among the mountains, that in the quarries of Syracuse the imprints of a fish and of seals had been found, and in Paros the imprint of an anchovy at some depth in the stone, and in Melite shallow impressions of all sorts of sea products. He says that these imprints were made when everything long ago was covered with mud, and then the imprint dried in the mud. Farther he says that all men will be destroyed when the earth sinks into the sea and becomes mud, and that the race will begin anew from the beginning; and this transformation takes place for all worlds.

Plut. Strom. 4; Dox. 580. Xenophanes of Kolophon, going his own way and differing from all those that had gone before, did not admit either genesis or destruction, but says that the all is always the same. For if it came into being, it could not have existed before this; and not-being could not come into existence nor could it accomplish anything, nor could anything come from not-being. And he declares that sensations are deceptive, and together with them he does away with the authority of reason itself. And he declares that the earth is constantly sinking little by little into the sea. He says that the sun is composed of numerous fiery particles massed together. And with regard to the gods he declares that there is no rule of one god over another, for it is impious that any of the gods should be ruled; and none of the gods have need of anything at all, for a god hears and sees in all his parts and not in some particular organs. He declares that the earth is infinite and is not surrounded on every side by air; and all things arise from earth; and he says that the sun and the stars arise from clouds.

Galen, Hist. Phil. 3; Dox. 601. Xenophanes of Kolophon is said to be the chief of this school, which is ordinarily considered aporetic (skeptical) rather than dogmatic. 7; Dox. 604. To the class holding eclectic views belongs Xenophanes, who has his doubts as to all things, except that he holds this one dogma: that all things are one, and that this is god, who is limited, endowed with reason, and immovable.

Aet. Plac. i. 3; Dox. 284. Xenophanes held that the first principle of all things is earth, for he wrote in his book on nature: ‘All things come from earth, and all things end by becoming earth.’

Aet. ii. 4; Dox. 332. Xenophanes et al.: The world is without beginning, eternal, imperishable. 13; 343. The stars are formed of burning cloud; these are extinguished each day, but they are kindled again at night, like coals; for their risings and settings are really kindlings and extinguishings. 18; 347. The objects which appear to those on vessels like stars, and which some call Dioscuri, are little clouds which have become luminous by a certain kind of motion. 20; 348. The sun is composed of fiery particles collected from the moist exhalation and massed together, or of burning clouds. 24; 354. Eclipses occur by extinction of the sun; and the sun is born anew at its risings. Xenophanes recorded an eclipse of the sun for a whole month, and another eclipse so complete that the day seemed as night. 24; 355. Xenophanes held that there are many suns and moons according to the different regions and sections and zones of the earth; and that at some fitting time the disk of the sun comes into a region of the earth not inhabited by us, and so it suffers eclipse as though it had gone into a hole; he adds that the sun goes on for an infinite distance, but it seems to turn around by reason of the great distance. 25; 356. The moon is a compressed cloud. 28; 358. It shines by its own light. 29; 360. The moon disappears each month because it is extinguished. 30; 362. The sun serves a purpose in the generation of the world and of the animals on it, as well as in sustaining them, and it drags the moon after it.

Aet. iii. 2; 367. Comets are groups or motions of burning clouds. 3; 368. Lightnings take place when clouds shine in motion. 4; 371. The phenomena of the heavens come from the warmth of the sun as the principal cause. For when the moisture is drawn up from the sea, the sweet water separated by reason of its lightness becomes mist and passes into clouds, and falls as rain when compressed, and the winds scatter it; for he writes expressly (Frag. 11): ‘The sea is the source of water.’

Aet. iv. 9; 396. Sensations are deceptive.

Aet. v. 1; 415. Xenophanes and Epikouros abolished the prophetic art.

VI.

THE ELEATIC SCHOOL: PARMENIDES.

Parmenides, the son of Pyres (or Pyrrhes), of Elea, was born about 515 B.C.; his family was of noble rank and rich, but Parmenides devoted himself to philosophy. He was associated with members of the Pythagorean society, and is himself called a Pythagorean by later writers. In the formation of his philosophic system however he was most influenced by his aged fellow-townsman, Xenophanes; the doctrines of Xenophanes he developed into a system which was embodied in a poetic work ‘On Nature.’ The statement that he made laws for the citizens may have reference to some connection with the Pythagorean society.

Literature: The fragments of Parmenides have been collected by Peyron, Leipzig 1810; Karsten, Amsterdam 1830; Brandis, Comm. Eleat. Altona 1813; Vatke, Berlin 1864; Stein, Symb. philol. Bonn. Leipzig 1867; V. Revue Phil. 1883, 5: 1884, 9. Berger, Die Zonenlehre d. Parm. München, 1895.

(a) FRAGMENTS OF PARMENIDES.

Ἵπποι ταί με φέρουσιν, ὅσον τ’ ἐπὶ θυμὸς ἱκάνοι, πέμπον, ἐπεί μ’ ἐς ὁδὸν βῆσαν πολύφημον ἄγουσαι δαίμονος ἣ κατὰ πάντ’ αὐτὴ φέρει εἰδότα φῶτα. τῇ φερόμην· τῇ γάρ με πολύφραστοι φέρον ἵπποι ἅρμα τιταίνουσαι· κοῦραι δ’ ὁδὸν ἡγεμόνευον. 5 ἄξων δ’ ἐν χνοιῇσιν <ἵει> σύριγγος ἀυτὴν αἰθόμενος (δοιοῖς γὰρ ἐπείγετο δινωτοῖσιν κύκλοις ἀμφοτέρωθεν), ὅτε σπερχοίατο πέμπειν Ἡλιάδες κοῦραι, προλιποῦσαι δώματα νυκτός, εἰς φάος, ὠσάμεναι κρατῶν ἄπο χερσὶ καλύπτρας. 10 ἔνθα πύλαι νυκτός τε καὶ ἤματός εἰσι κελεύθων, καί σφας ὑπέρθυρον ἀμφὶς ἔχει καὶ λάινος οὐδός, αὐταὶ δ’ αἰθέριαι πλῆνται μεγάλοισι θυρέτροις. τῶν δὲ Δίκη πολύποινος ἔχει κληῖδας ἀμοιβούς. τὴν δὴ παρφάμεναι κοῦραι μαλακοῖσι λόγοισιν 15 πεῖσαν ἐπιφραδέως, ὥς σφιν βαλανωτὸν ὀχῆα ἀπτερέως ὤσειε πυλέων ἄπο. ταὶ δὲ θυρέτρων χάσμ’ ἀχανὲς ποίησαν ἀναπτάμεναι, πολυχάλκους ἄξονας ἐν σύριγξιν ἀμοιβαδὸν εἱλίξασαι, γόμφοις καὶ περόνῃσιν ἀρηρότε· τῇ ῥα δι’ αὐτῶν 20 ἰθὺς ἔχον κοῦραι καθ’ ἁμαξιτὸν ἅρμα καὶ ἵππους. καί με θεὰ πρόφρων ὑπεδέξατο, χεῖρα δὲ χειρὶ δεξιτερὴν ἕλεν, ὧδε δ’ ἔπος φάτο καί με προσηύδα· ὦ κοῦρ’ ἀθανάτοισι συνήορος ἡνιόχοισιν, ἵπποις ταί σε φέρουσιν ἱκάνων ἡμέτερον δῶ, 25 χαῖρ’, ἐπεὶ οὔτι σε μοῖρα κακὴ προύπεμπε νέεσθαι τήνδ’ ὁδόν· ἦ γὰρ ἀπ’ ἀνθρώπων ἐκτὸς πάτου ἐστίν· ἀλλὰ θέμις τε δίκη τε. χρέω δέ σε πάντα πυθέσθαι, ἠμὲν ἀληθείης εὐπειθέος ἀτρεμὲς ἦτορ, ἠδὲ βρότων δόξας τῇς οὐκ ἔνι πίστις ἀληθής. 30 ἀλλ’ ἔμπης καὶ ταῦτα μαθήσεαι, ὡς τὰ δοκοῦντα χρὴ δοκίμως κρῖναι· διὰ παντὸς πάντα περῶντα.

τὰ πρὸς ἀλήθειαν.

εἴ δ’ ἄγ’, ἐγὼν ἐρέω, κόμισαι δὲ σὺ μῦθον ἀκούσας, αἵπερ ὁδοὶ μοῦναι διζήσιός εἰσι νοῆσαι. ἡ μὲν ὅπως ἔστιν τε καὶ ὡς οὐκ ἔστι μὴ εἶναι 35 πειθοῦς ἐστι κέλευθος, ἀληθείη γὰρ ὀπηδεῖ· ἡ δ’ ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν τε καὶ ὡς χρεών ἐστι μὴ εἶναι τὴν δή τοι φράζω παναπειθέα ἔμμεν ἀταρπόν· οὔτε γὰρ ἂν γνοίης τό γε μὴ ἐόν· οὐ γὰρ ἀνυστόν· οὔτε φράσαις. τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ νοεῖν ἐστίν τε καὶ εἶναι. 40

ξυνὸν δέ μοί ἐστιν, ὁππόθεν ἄρξωμαι, τόθι γὰρ πάλιν ἵξομαι αὖθις.

χρὴ τὸ λέγειν τε νοεῖν τ’ ἐὸν ἔμμεναι. ἔστι γὰρ εἶναι, μηδὲν δ’ οὐκ εἶναι, τά σ’ ἐγὼ φράζεθαι ἄνωγα, πρώτης γάρ σ’ ἀφ’ ὁδοῦ ταύτης διζήσιος <εἴργω> 45 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτ’ ἀπὸ τῆς, ἣν δὴ βροτοὶ εἰδότες οὐδὲν πλάζονται δίκρανοι· ἀμηχανίη γὰρ ἐν αὐτῶν στήθεσιν ἰθύνει πλαγκτὸν νόον· οἱ δὲ φορεῦνται κωφοὶ ὁμῶς τυφλοί τε τεθηπότες ἄκριτα φῦλα, οἷς τὸ πέλειν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶναι τὠυτὸν νενόμισται 50 κοὐ τὠυτόν, πάντων δὲ παλίντροπός ἐστι κέλευθος. οὐ γὰρ μή ποτε τοῦτο δαμῇ, φησιν, εἶναι μὴ ἐόντα ἀλλὰ σὺ τῆσδ’ ἀφ’ ὁδοῦ διζήσιος εἶργε νόημα· μηδέ σ’ ἔθος πολύπειρον ὁδὸν κατὰ τήνδε βιάσθω νωμᾶν ἄσκοπον ὄμμα καὶ ἠχήεσσαν ἀκουήν 55 καὶ γλῶσσαν, κρῖναι δὲ λόγων πολύδηριν ἔλεγχον ἐξ ἐμέθεν ῥηθέντα. μόνος δ’ ἔτι μῦθος ὁδοῖο λείπεται, ὡς ἔστιν. ταύτῃ δ’ ἐπὶ σήματ’ ἔασι πολλὰ μάλ’, ὡς ἀγένητον ἐὸν καὶ ἀνώλεθρόν ἐστιν, οὖλον μουνογενές τε καὶ ἀτρεμὲς ἠδ’ ἀτέλεστον. 60 οὐδέ ποτ’ ἦν οὐδ’ ἔσται ἐπεὶ νῦν ἔστιν ὁμοῦ πᾶν, ἕν, ξυνεχές· τίνα γὰρ γένναν διζήσεαι αὐτοῦ; πῇ πόθεν αὐξηθέν; οὔτ’ ἐκ μὴ ἐόντος ἐάσω φάσθαι σ’ οὐδὲ νοεῖν· οὐ γὰρ φατὸν οὐδὲ νοητὸν ἐστὶν ὅπως οὐκ ἔστι. τί δ’ ἄν μιν καὶ χρέος ὦρσεν, 65 ὕστερον ἢ πρόσθεν τοῦ μηδενὸς ἀρξάμενον φῦν; οὕτως ἢ πάμπαν πέλεναι χρεών ἐστιν ἢ οὐχί. οὐδέ ποτ’ ἔκ πῃ ἐόντος ἐφήσει πίστιος ἰσχύς γίνεσθαί τι παρ’ αὐτό· τοῦ εἵνεκεν οὔτε γενέσθαι οὔτ’ ὄλλυσθαι ἀνῆκε Δίκη χαλάσασα πέδῃσιν 70 ἀλλ’ ἔχει.

λεῦσσε δ’ ὅμως ἀπεόντα νόῳ παρεόντα βεβαίως· 90 οὐ γὰρ ἀποτμήξεις τῇ ἐὸν τῇ ἐόντος ἔχεσθαι οὔτε σκιδνάμενον πάντῃ πάντως κατὰ κόσμον οὔτε συνιστάμενον. τωὐτὸν δ’ ἐστὶ νοεῖν τε καὶ οὕνεκέν ἐστι νόημα. οὐ γὰρ ἄνευ τοῦ ἐόντος, ἐν ᾧ πεφατισμένον ἐστίν, 95 εὑρήσεις τὸ νοεῖν. οὐδὲν χρέος ἔστιν ἢ ἔσται ἄλλο πάρεξ τοῦ ἐόντος, ἐπεὶ τό γε μοῖρ’ ἐπέδησεν οὖλον ἀκίνητόν τ’ ἔμεναι. τῷ πάντ’ ὄνομ’ ἔσται ὅσσα βροτοὶ κατέθεντο, πεποιθότες εἶναι ἀληθῆ, γίνεσθαί τε καὶ ὄλλυσθαι, εἶναί τε καὶ οὐκί, 100 καὶ τόπον ἀλλάσσειν διά τε χρόα φανὸν ἀμείβειν. αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ πεῖρας πύματον, τετελεσμένον ἐστὶ πάντοθεν, εὐκύκλου σφαίρης ἐναλίγκιον ὄγκῳ, μεσσόθεν ἰσοπαλὲς πάντῃ· τὸ γὰρ οὔτε τι μεῖζον οὔτε τι βαιότερον πέλεναι χρεών ἐστι τῇ ἢ τῇ. 105 οὔτε γὰρ οὐκ ἐόν ἐστι, τό κεν παύοι μιν ἱκνεῖσθαι εἰς ὁμόν, οὔτ’ ἐὸν ἔστιν ὅπως εἴη κεν ἐόντος τῇ μᾶλλον τῇ δ’ ἧσσον, ἐπεὶ πᾶν ἐστιν ἄσυλον. εἰ γὰρ πάντοθεν ἶσον ὁμῶς ἐν πείρασι κύρει.

τὰ πρὸς δόξαν.

ἐν τῷ σοι παύσω πιστὸν λόγον ἠδὲ νόημα 110 ἀμφὶς ἀληθείης· δόξας δ’ ἀπὸ τοῦδε βροτείας μάνθανε, κόσμον ἐμῶν ἐπέων ἀπατηλὸν ἀκούων. μορφὰς γὰρ κατέθεντο δύο γνώμαις ὀνομάζειν τῶν μίαν οὐ χρεών ἐστιν, ἐν ᾧ πεπλανημένοι εἰσίν. ἀντία δ’ ἐκρίναντο δέμας καὶ σήματ’ ἔθεντο 115 χωρὶς ἀπ’ ἀλλήλων, τῇ μὲν φλογὸς αἰθέριον πῦρ ἤπιον ἔμμεν ἀραιὸν, ἑαυτῷ πάντοσε τωὐτόν, τῷ δ’ ἑτέρῳ μὴ τωὐτόν· ἀτὰρ κἀκεῖνο κατ’ αὐτοῦ ἀντία νύκτ’ ἀδαῆ, πυκινὸν δέμας ἐμβριθές τε. τῶν σοι ἐγὼ διάκοσμον ἐοικότα πάντα φατίζω, 120 ὡς οὐ μή ποτέ τίς σε βροτῶν γνώμη παρελάσῃ.

αὐτὰρ ἐπειδὴ πάντα φάος καὶ νὺξ ὀνόμασται καὶ τὰ κατὰ σφετέρας δυνάμεις ἐπὶ τοῖσί τε καὶ τοῖς, πᾶν πλέον ἐστὶν ὁμοῦ φάεος καὶ νυκτὸς ἀφάντου, ἴσων ἀμφοτέρων, ἐπεὶ οὐδετέρῳ μέτα μηδέν. 125

αἱ γὰρ στεινότεραι πλῆνται πυρὸς ἀκρήτοιο, αἱ δ’ ἐπὶ ταῖς νυκτὸς, μετὰ δὲ φλογὸς ἵεται αἶσα, ἐν δὲ μέσῳ τούτων δαίμων, ἣ πάντα κυβερνᾷ. πάντῃ γὰρ στυγεροῖο τόκου καὶ μίξιος ἄρχει πέμπουσ’ ἄρσενι θῆλυ μιγὲν τό τ’ ἐνάντιον αὖθις 130 ἄρσεν θηλυτέρῳ.

πρώτιστον μὲν Ἔρωτα θεῶν μητίσατο πάντων.

εἴσῃ δ’ αἰθερίαν τε φύσιν τά τ’ ἐν αἰθέρι πάντα σήματα καὶ καθαρᾶς εὐαγέος ἠελίοιο λαμπάδος ἔργ’ ἀίδηλα καὶ ὁππόθεν ἐξεγένοντο, 135 ἔργα τε κύκλωπος πεύσῃ περίφοιτα σελήνης καὶ φύσιν. εἰδήσεις τε καὶ οὐρανὸν ἀμφὶς ἔχοντα, ἔνθεν ἔφυ τε, καὶ ὥς μιν ἄγουσ’ ἐπέδησεν Ἀνάγκη πείρατ’ ἔχειν ἄστρων.

πῶς γαῖα καὶ ἥλιος ἠδὲ σελήνη 140 αἰθήρ τε ξυνὸς γάλα τ’ οὐράνιον καὶ Ὄλυμπος ἔσχατος ἠδ’ ἄστρων θερμὸν μένος ὡρμήθησαν γίνεσθαι. νυκτιφαὲς περὶ γαῖαν ἀλώμενον ἀλλότριον φῶς

αἴει παπταίνουσα πρὸς αὐγὰς ἠελιοῖο 145