CHAPTER IV. Industrial Evolution

INDUSTRIAL EVOLUTION

At all times within the historic period trade and industry have reacted profoundly on social life; and as we near the modern period in our own history the connection becomes more and more decisively determinant. In the oldest culture-history at all known to us, as we have seen, the commercial factor affects everything else; and at no time in European annals do we fail to note some special scene or area in which trade furnishes to politicians special problems. Thus the culture-history of Italy, as we have also seen, is in past epochs inseparably bound up with her commercial history. But as regards the north of Europe, it is in the modern period that we begin specially to recognise trade as playing a leading part in politics, national and international. The Mediterranean tradition is first seen powerfully at work in the history of the Hansa towns: then comes the great development of Flanders, then that of Holland, then that of England, which gained so much from the influx of Flemish and Dutch Protestant refugees in the reign of Philip II, but which was checked in its commercial growth, under Elizabeth and James alike, by their policy of granting monopolies to favourites.

Sir Josiah Child puts "the latter end of Elizabeth's reign" as the time when England began to be "anything in trade" (New Discourse of Trade, 4th ed. p. 73). Cp. Prof. Busch on English trade under Henry VII, England unter den Tudors, i, 71-85, with Schanz, Englische Handelspolitik, i, 328, where it is stated that in the latter part of the sixteenth century there were 3,000 merchants engaged in the sea trade. This seems extremely doubtful when we note that the whole foreign trade of London was stated in Parliament in 1604 to be in the hands of some 200 citizens (Journals of the House of Commons, May 21, 1604), and the total customs of London amounted to L110,000 a year, as against L17,000 from all the rest of the kingdom. As Hume notes (ch. 45, note), a remonstrance from the Trinity House in 1602 declared that since 1588 the shipping and number of seamen in England had decayed about a third. (Cit. from Anglesey's Happy Future State of England, p. 128.) This again, however, seems doubtful.

Broadly put, the fact appears to be that after a considerable development of woollen manufacture in the towns during the Wars of the Roses (above, p. 393), when sheep-rearing must have been precarious and wool would be imported, there was a general return to pasturage under the Tudor peace, the towns falling away, with their manufactures. Attempts were made under Henry VIII and Edward VI to develop the English mining industries by means of German workmen and overseers, but apparently with no great success (Ehrenberg, Hamburg und England im Zeit. der Koen. Elisabeth, 1896, pp. 4-6). It was after the persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands under Charles V had driven many tradesmen to England for refuge that manufacturing industry notably revived; and in 1564-65 we find the year's exports of England reckoned at L68,190 for wool and L896,079 for cloths and other woollen wares; the whole of the rest of the export trade amounting only to L133,665 (Brit. Mus. Lansdowne MS. 10, fol. 121-22, cited by Ehrenberg, p. 8; cp. Cunningham, Industry and Commerce, ii, 82-83; Gibbins, Industrial Hist. of England, 3rd. ed. pp. 132-33.) After the fall of Antwerp, again, much of the commerce of that city fell to the share of England, some of her commercial and artisan population following it (Froude, Hist. of England, ed. 1872, xii, 1-2).

In the same period the commercial life of north Germany, which had hitherto been far more widely developed than that of England (Ehrenberg, pp. 1-11), was thrown back on the one hand by the opening of the new ocean route to the East Indies, which upset the trans-European trade from the Mediterranean, and on the other by the new strifes between the princes and the cities (id. pp. 34-49); and here again English trade came to the front.

The "Merchant Adventurers," ready enough to accept monopolies for their own incorporations, were free-traders as against other monopolists; and not till all such abuses were abolished could England compete with Holland. And though they were never legally annulled even under the Commonwealth, "as men paid no regard to the prerogative whence the charters of those companies were derived, the monopoly was gradually invaded, and commerce increased by the increase of liberty." France at times promised to rival both Holland and England; but she at length definitely fell behind England in the race, as Flanders fell behind Holland, by reason of political misdirection. In the middle and latter part of the seventeenth century, all the northern States had their eyes fastened on the shining example of Holland; and commerce, which as an occasion of warfare had since the rise of Christianity been superseded by religion, begins to give the cue for animosities of peoples, rulers, and classes. The last great religious war--if we except the strifes of Russia and Turkey, which are quasi-religious--was the Thirty Years' War. Its very atrocity doubtless went far to discredit the religious motive, and it ranks as the worst war of the modern world. Commerce, however, for centuries supplied new motives for war to men whose ideas of economics were still at the theological stage. The eternal principle of strife, of human attraction and repulsion, plays through the phenomena of commerce as through those of creed. The profoundly insane lust for gold and silver, which had so largely determined the history of the Roman Empire, definitely shaped that of Spain; and Spain's example fired the northern nations with whom she came in contact.

Prof. Thorold Rogers is responsible for the strange proposition (Economic Interpretation of History, p. 186; Industrial and Commercial History of England, p. 321) that the chief source of the silver supply of Europe, before the discovery of the New World, was England. He offers nothing but his own conviction in proof of his statement, to which he adds the explanation that the silver in question was extracted from sulphuret of lead. It seems well to point out that there is not a shadow of foundation for the main assertion. That the argentiferous lead mines were worked seems clear; but that they could produce the main European supply without the fact being historically noted is incredible. On the other hand, silver mines were found in Germany in the tenth century and later, and there is reason to attribute to their output a gradual rise of prices before the fifteenth century (Anderson's History of Commerce, i, 67). In any case, there is no reason to doubt the statement of the historians of the precious metals, that what silver was produced in Europe in the Middle Ages was mostly mined in Spain and Germany. See Del Mar, History of the Precious Metals, 1880, pp. 38-43 and refs.; also Ehrenberg, Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Koenigin Elisabeth, 1896, pp. 4, 9; Menzel, Geschichte der Deutschen, Cap. 276, end; and Kohlrausch, History of Germany, Eng. tr. 1844, p. 261.

The direct search for gold as plunder developed into the pursuit of it as price; and wealthier States than Spain were raised by the more roundabout method which Spain disdained.

This was soon recognised by Spanish economists, who probably followed the French physiocrats, as represented in the excellent chapters of Montesquieu on money (cited above, p. 363). See the passage from Bernard of Ulloa (1753) cited by Blanqui, Hist. de l'econ. polit., 2e edit. ii, 28. Cp. Samber, Memoirs of the Dutch Trade, Eng. tr. 1719, pref. Apart from the habits set up by imperialism, the Spaniards were in part anti-industrial because industry was so closely associated with the Moriscoes (Major Hume, Spain, p. 195); and the innumerable Church holidays counted for much. Yet in the first half of the sixteenth century Spain had a great development of town industrial life (Armstrong, Introd. to same vol. pp. 83-84). This is partly attributable to the new colonial trade; but probably more to the connection with Flanders. Cp. Grattan, The Netherlands, pp. 66, 88. About 1670, however, manufacture for export had entirely ceased; the trade of Madrid, such as it was, was mainly in the hands of Frenchmen; the Church and the bureaucracy alone flourished; and although discharged soldiers swarmed in the cities, what harvests there were had to be reaped by the hands of French labourers who came each season for the purpose. Hume, as cited, p. 285. This usage subsisted nearly a century later (Tucker, Essay on Trade, ed. 1756, p. 25)

Holland in the seventeenth century presented to the European world, as we have seen, the new and striking spectacle of a dense population thriving on a soil which could not possibly be made to feed them. "Trade" became the watchword of French statesmanship; and Colbert pressed it against a froward nobility; while in England a generation later it had acquired the deeper rooting that goes with the voluntary activity and self-seeking of a numerous class; and already the gentry freely devoted their younger sons to the pursuits which those of France contemned.

The turn seems to have been taken in the most natural way, after Parliament was able to force on James I a stoppage of the practice of granting monopolies. At his accession, the King had sought popularity by calling in and scrutinising the many monopolies granted by Elizabeth, which constituted the main grievance of the time. Soon, however, he conformed to the old usage, which had in some measure the support of Bacon; and in 1621 it was declared that he had multiplied monopolies twentyfold. The most careful historian of the period reports that though they were continually being abused, they were granted on no corrupt motives, but in sheer mistaken zeal for the spread of commerce. It would be more plausible to say that when interests either of purse or of patronage lay in a certain direction, those concerned were very easily satisfied that the interests of commerce pointed the same way. At length, after much dispute, the Lords passed, in 1624, a Monopoly Bill previously passed by the Commons in 1621; and though some of the chief monopolies were left standing, either as involving patents for inventions or as being vested in corporations, mere private trade monopolies were for the future prevented.

It was a triumph of the trading class over the upper, nothing more. As for the corporations, they were as avid of monopolies as the courtiers had ever been; and independent traders hampered by monopolist corporations were only too ready to become monopolist corporations themselves. Under Charles I, for instance, there was set up a chartered company with a monopoly of soap-making, of which every manufacturer could become a member--a kind of chartered "trust," born out of due time--the price paid to the crown for the privilege being L10,000 and a royalty of L8 on every ton of soap made. For this payment the monopolists received full powers of coercion and the punitive aid of the Star Chamber. After a few years, in consideration of a higher payment, the King revoked the first patent and established a new corporation. Similar monopolies were granted to starch-makers and other producers; the Long Parliament pursuing the same policy, "till monopolies became as common as they had been under James or Elizabeth."

Part of the result was that about 1635 "there were more merchants to be found upon the exchange worth each one thousand pounds and upwards than there were in the former days, before the year 1600, to be found worth one hundred pounds each." The upper classes, as capitalists and even as traders, were not now likely to remain aloof. But all the while there was no betterment of the lot of the poor. "That our poor in England," writes Child after the Restoration, "have always been in a most sad and wretched condition ... is confessed and lamented by all men." Child's theory of the effect of usury laws in the matter is pure fallacy; but his estimate of men's fortunes is probably more accurate than the statement of the Venetian ambassador in the reign of Mary, that "there were many merchants in London with L50,000 or L60,000 each." Howell, in 1619, expresses a belief that "our four-and-twenty aldermen may buy a hundred of the richest men in Amsterdam." Yet, though it was also confessed that among the Dutch, and even in Hamburg and Paris, the poor were intelligently provided for, no such necessity was practically recognised in England, either by Puritan or by Cavalier, though before the Rebellion the administration of Charles had not been apathetic; and a century later there were the same conditions of popular misery and vice, with a new plague of drunkenness added. By that time, too, the corporation monopolies were strangling trade just as the private monopolies had formerly done; while France, which in the latter part of the seventeenth century gave such a stimulus to English and Dutch industry by the suicidal Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, had recovered both population and trade, and was on a commercial footing which, well developed, might have given her the victory over England in the race for empire.

Everywhere in the seventeenth century, however, the new development meant new strife. Protestant England and Holland, Catholic France and Protestant Holland, flew at each other's throats in quarrels of trade and tariffs; and for the monopoly of the trade in cloves, Dutch and Spanish and English battled as furiously as for constraint and freedom of conscience. The primitively selfish and mistaken notion men had formed of commercial economy was on a level with the religious impulse as it had subsisted from the beginning of Christendom; and even as each Christian sect had felt it necessary to throttle the rest, each nation felt that its prosperity depended on the others' impoverishment. To spite the Dutch, the Cromwellian party in 1651 passed the Navigation Act, prohibiting all imports of foreign goods save in English ships or those of the nations producing them. In practice it was a total failure, the effect being to injure the English rather than the Dutch trade; but the Dutch themselves, who were fanatical for their own Asiatic monopoly trade, believed it would injure them, and went to war accordingly.

The eulogy of the Navigation Act as "wise" by Adam Smith (put, by the way, with a "perhaps") is one of his worst mistakes. Roger Coke in 1672 testified (Treatise on Trade, p. 68, cited by M'Culloch) that within two years of the passing of the Act England lost the greater part of the Baltic and Greenland trades; and Sir Josiah Child's New Discourse of Trade shows in detail that the English by about 1670 or 1690 had lost to the Dutch even much of the trade they formerly had. (See Preface to second and later editions, and compare M'Culloch, note xi to his edition of the Wealth of Nations, and McCullagh, Industrial History, ii, 340.) The one direction in which the Act seems to have been successful was in stimulating shipbuilding and seafaring in the American colonies. (See Prof. Ashley in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Boston, November, 1899, pp. 4-6.) Joshua Gee, in his Trade and Navigation of Great Britain Considered (1730, 6th ed. p. 113), expressly ascribes a "prodigious increase of our shipping" to "the timber trade between Portugal, etc., and our plantations," one result being that English ships have "become the common carriers in the Mediterranean, as well as between the Mediterranean, Holland, Hambro', and the Baltic." He says nothing of the Navigation Act, but lays stress on the cheap building of ships in New England, and notes (p. 114) that the Dutch habitually hire English ships "to transport their goods from Spain, etc., to Amsterdam, and other places."

Even among expert merchants there was no true economic science, only a certain empirical knowledge, reduced to rule of thumb. Hence the traders were for ever tending to strangle trade, and the ablest administrators fell into the snare. Everywhere they tended to be possessed by the gross fallacy that they could somehow sell without buying, and so heap up gold and silver; and to secure at least a balance in bullion was considered an absolute necessity. This was the most serious error of the policy of Colbert, who secured a balance of social gain to France by stimulating and protecting shipping and new industries, but failed to learn the lesson that foreign commerce in the end must consist in an exchange of goods. Thus, though he resisted the ruinous methods of Louis XIV, he lent himself to the theory which, next to the hope of making the Netherlands a province of France and so an arm of French naval strength, stimulated the policy of war. By repeatedly raising his tariffs he forced the Dutch to raise theirs; whereupon France went to war. Had he known that the Dutch could not sell to France without buying thence, and vice versa, he would have rested content with establishing his new industries.

M. Dussieux (as cited, p. 127) frames a deplorable demonstration that Holland was impoverishing France and destroying all industry there by selling more articles than she bought. As if any country could go on buying in perpetuity without selling in payment. M. Dussieux goes on to admit that France before Colbert had some great industries, and a great agricultural export trade, as must needs have been. His argument shows the survival of the mercantilist delusion that trade can drain a productive country of its bullion. It is evident that Colbert helped trade more by checking fiscal abuses and promoting canals and roads than by protecting new industries. On the whole he seems to have gravely injured agriculture (id. pp. 89, note, and 133); and Adam Smith's criticism (Wealth of Nations, bk. iii, ch. ii; bk. iv, ch. ix) remains valid. He was "imposed upon by the sophistry of merchants and manufacturers, who are always demanding a monopoly against their countrymen," and by prohibiting export of grain he depressed agriculture, the natural and facile industry of France, and so promoted the rural misery which at length inspired the Revolution. It was essentially by way of reaction against his error that the Physiocrats fell into theirs--the denial that any industry was productive except agriculture. Even if he had not prohibited export of grain, his import duties, in so far as they excluded foreign products, would have checked the grain exports which had formerly paid for these. Thus, as M. Dussieux admits, Colbert failed to secure prosperity for the peasantry while he was helping industry. (Cp. Brandt, Beitraege, as cited.) Colbert in the nineteenth century had the benefit of the doctrine that monarchism prepared for democracy in France, and there is some truth in the protest of Morin that on this and other grounds he became the object of "un culte ridicule qui brave les notions les plus elementaires de l'economie publique" (Origines de la democratie, Introd.--written in 1854--p. 48). Morin goes so far as to charge on Colbert equally with Louvois the misfortunes of France under Louis XIV (id. pp. 88, 120).

Of course the rival nations were equally self-seeking. Prohibitive tariffs were necessarily lowest with the most specifically commercial State, the Dutch; and the free trade doctrine began early to be heard in England.

E.g., from Dudley North. Macaulay, ed. cited, i, 253. See the quotations in M'Culloch, as above cited. Pepys, in his Diary, under date 1664, February 29, tells how Sir Philip Warwick expounded to him the "paradox" that it does not impoverish the nation to export less than it imports. For earlier instances of right thinking on the subject see the author's Trade and Tariffs, p. 65 sq. The repeal in 1663 of statutes against exporting bullion was carried in the interests of the East India Company, and apparently on a false theory; see it in Child, New Discourse, p. 173. Cp. Shaftesbury, Characteristics, Treatise II, pt. i, Sec. 2, end, as to the advantage of a "free port." This had been partially insisted on, as we have seen, by the Merchant Adventurers in the days of Elizabeth and James; and Raleigh strongly pressed it in his Observations touching Trade and Commerce with the Hollander and other Nations, presented to James. Works, ed. 1829, viii, 356-57. Raleigh, however, was a bullionist.

But whether rulers leant in the direction of free trade or strove to heap up import duties as did France, they went to war for monopolies and for imposts. Holland had as determinedly sought the ruin of Antwerp as England did that of Holland. And as the race-principle embroiled nations on the score of trade, so the class-principle set up new feuds of class in all the nations concerned. The new trading class fought for its own hand as the trade gilds of the Middle Ages had done; and the fact of its connections with the gentry did not prevent animosity between gentry and traders or investors in the mass. Thus were the old issues complicated, for good or for ill.

Prof. Cunningham (English Industry and Commerce, ed. 1892, ii, 16-17) offers an unexpected defence of the "Mercantile System," under which bullion was striven for as "the direct means of securing power." "The wisdom of the whole scheme," he writes, "is apparently justified by the striking development of national power which took place during the period when it lasted. England first outstripped Holland and then raised an empire in the East on the ruins of French dependencies." After this argument Dr. Cunningham falters, observing: "But even if the logic of facts seems to tell in its favour, there is a danger of fallacy: success was attained, but how far was it due to the working of coal, and the age of mechanical invention, and how far to the policy pursued?" There is really no need to suppose such an antinomy between "the logic of facts" and any other logic. The only legitimate logic of facts is that which takes in all the facts. Now, seeing that France was as much devoted as England to the Mercantile System, and that in the terms of the case she failed, it cannot have been the Mercantile System that secured success to England. The logic of facts excludes the hypothesis. As for the "outstripping" of Holland, a country with perhaps a fourth of England's population in the eighteenth century, we have seen that the Mercantile System, as operating in the Navigation Act, totally failed to attain its purpose, and that Dutch decadence was largely due to monopolies--i.e., to acceptance of the Mercantile System. The working of coal, on the other hand, was a real wealth-making force, certainly conducive to naval and other empire. But more allowance is to be made for the fact that France had heavy continental quarrels on hand while she was fighting England in Asia and America.

If at this stage we seek to discover the manner of life of the working class in England, we shall find it hard to reach a confident conception. Many phrases in Shakespeare remind us that as towns grew there grew with them a nondescript semi-industrial class, untrained for any regular industry and unable to subsist without industry of some sort. In the latter part of the seventeenth century we seem to see a process of elimination at work by which the organisms capable of enduring toil are selected from a mass to which such toil was too irksome. In 1668 Sir Josiah Child writes that the English poor in a cheap year "will not work above two days in a week; their humour being such that they will ... just work so much and no more as may maintain them in that mean condition to which they have been accustomed." That, accordingly, a high price for bread was a good thing, as forcing the poor to industry, became the standing doctrine of such publicists as Petty. In the next generation, Mandeville puts as indisputable the statement that "the poor" will not work any more than they need to maintain bare existence. When, late in the eighteenth century, we find Adam Smith, with French testimony to support him, denying that the pinch of poverty makes for industry, we are left in doubt as to whether the improvement came by a positive dying out of the lazy types through the new plague of alcoholism, or through the gradual exemplary force of a higher standard of comfort as seen among the more industrious. Probably both influences were at work. But it was at best in a grimy under-world of degeneracy and hunger, squalor and riot, that there were laid the roots of the new mechanical industries which were to make England the chief mill and counter of Europe. And when we find one of the acutest observers of the next generation arguing that a large body of the needy poor is the right and necessary basis of industry and public wealth, we realise that the new life was to be as hard for the toilers as that of any earlier age.

Conclusion

It is in the reign of the last of the Stuarts, whose sex made her perforce rely on ministers to rule for her, and whose unenlightened zeal thus missed the disaster which similar qualities had brought upon two of her predecessors--it is in the reign of Anne, swayed by favourites to an extent that might have made monarchy ridiculous if monarchists had gone by reason and not by superstition--that there begins recognisably the era of government by parliamentary leaders, representing at once, in varying degrees, monarch and people; and it is at this point that we begin the biographical studies to which the foregoing pages offer an introduction. But under new conditions and phases we are to meet for the most part repetitions and developments of the forces already recognised as at work from time immemorial. Thus early have we seen in action, on the field of English history, most of those primary forces of strife whose play makes the warp of politics, ancient and modern; and the distinct emergence, withal, of that spirit which, rare and transient in ancient times, seems destined to inherit the later earth--the spirit of science, which slowly transmutes politics from an animal to an intellectual process, raising it from the stage of mere passional life to the stage of constructive art, and from the social relation of rule and subjection towards the relation of mutuality and corporate intelligence. Politics, we formally say, is the process of the clash of wills, sympathies, interests, striving for social adjustment in the sphere of legislation and government. The earlier phases are crude and animalistic, and involve much resort to physical strife. The later phases are gradually humanised and intelligised, till at length the science of the past process builds up a new phase of consciousness, which evolves a conscious progressive art. That is to say, the conscious progressive art develops in course of time: it had not really arisen in any valid form at the period to which we have brought our bird's-eye view. It had transiently arisen in the ancient world, as in Solon and, far less effectually, in the Gracchi; but the conditions were too evil for its growth, and the course of things political was downward, the animal instincts overriding science, till even when there was compulsory peace the spirit of science could no more blossom. In English politics, soon after the beginning of the eighteenth century, the conditions brought about civil peace under a new dynasty, which it was the function of the statesmanship of the dynasty to maintain. At the same time the spirit of science had entered on a new life. It remains to trace, under successive statesmen and in the doctrine of successive politicians, the fluctuations of English progress towards the great Utopia, the state of reconciliation of all the lower social antipathies and interests, and of free scope for the inevitable but haply bloodless strifes of ideals, which must needs clash so far as we can foresee human affairs. The progress, we shall see, is only in our own day beginning to be conscious or calculated: it has truly been, so far as most of the actors are concerned, by unpath'd waters to undream'd shores. The hope is that the very recognition of the past course of the voyage will establish a new art and a new science of social navigation.

To make a new aspiration pass for a law of progress merely because it is new would, of course, be only a fresh dressing of old error. There is no security that the scientific form will make any ideal more viable than another; every ideal, after all, has stood for what social science there was among its devotees. The hope of a moral transformation of the world is a state of mind so often seen arising in human history that some distrust of it is almost a foregone condition of reflection on any new ideal for thoughtful men. A dream of deliverance pervades the earliest purposive literature of the Hebrews; a fabled salvation in the past is made the ground for trust in one to come. Wherever the sense of present hardship and suffering outweighs the energetic spirit of life in the ancient world, the young men are found seeing visions, and the old men dreaming dreams; and the thought of "the far serenity of Saturn's days" becomes a foothold for the Virgilian hope of a golden age to come. A hundred times has the hope flowered, and withered again. Confident rebellions, eager revolutions, mark at once its rise and its fall. In our own age the new birth of hope arises in the face of what might have seemed the most definitive frustration; it becomes an ideal of peaceful transformation under the sole spell of social science, with no weapons save those of reason and persuasion. The science of natural forces has widened and varied life without greatly raising it in mass. Yet the new science, we would fain believe, will conquer the heightened task. In the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of that hope lies for the coming age the practical answer to the riddle of existence.

Without such a hope, the study of the past would indeed be desolating to the tired spectator. Followed through cycle after cycle of illusory progress and conscious decline, all nevertheless as full of pulsation, of the pride of life and the passion of suffering, as the human tide that beats to-day on the shores of our own senses, the history of organised mankind, in its trivially long-drawn immensity, grows to be unspeakably disenchanting. Considered as a tale that is told, it seems to speak of nothing but blind impulse, narrow horizons, insane satisfactions in evil achievement, grotesque miscalculation, and vain desire, till it is almost a relief to reflect how little we know of it all, how immeasurable are the crowded distances beyond the reach of our search-light. Alike the known and the unknown, when all is said, figure for us as fruitless, purposeless, meaningless moments in some vast, eternal dream.

Poi di tanto adoprar, di tanti moti D'ogni celeste, ogni terrena cosa Girando senza posa, Per tornar sempre la donde son mosse; Uso alcuno, alcun frutto, Indovinar non so.

The untranslatable cadence of Leopardi has the very pulse of the wearied seeker's spirit. Yet, through all, the fascination of the inquiry holds us, as if in the insistent craving to understand there lay some of the springs of movement towards better days. We brood over the nearer remains, so near and yet so far, till out of the ruins of Rome there rise for us in hosts the serried phantoms of her tremendous drama; till we seem to catch the very rasp of Cato's voice, and the gleam of Caesar's eye, swaying the tide of things. Still, the sensation yields no sense of fruition; Rome the dead, and Greece the undying, drift from our reach into the desert distance. Beyond their sunlit fragments lies a shoreless and desolate twilight-land, receding towards the making of the world; and there in the shadows we dimly divine the wraiths of a million million forms, thronging a hundred civilisations. The vision of that vanished eternity renews the intolerable burden of the spirit baffled of all solution. For assuredly, in the remotest vistas of all, men and women desired and loved, and reared their young, and toiled unspeakably, and wept for their happier dead; and the evening and the morning, then as now, wove their sad and splendid pageantries with the slow serenity of cosmic change. Great empires waxed to the power of wreaking infinite slaughter, through the infinite labour of harmless animal souls; and seas of blood alternately cemented and sapped their brutal foundations; and all that remains of them is a tradition of a tradition of their destruction, and the shards of their uttermost decay. Not an echo of them lives, save where perchance some poet with struggling tongue murmurs his dream of them into tremulous form; or when music with its more mysterious spell gathers from out the inscrutable vibration of things strange semblances of memories, that come to us as an ancient and lost experience re-won, grey with time and weary with pilgrimage. But to what end, of knowledge or of feeling, if the future is not therefore to be changed?

Save for such a conception and such a purpose, the civilisations of to-day could have no rational hope to survive in perpetuity any more than those of the past. The fullest command of physical science, however great be the resulting power of wealth-production, means no solution of the social problem, which must breed its own science. The new ground for hope is that the great discipline of physical science has brought with it the twofold conception of the reign of law in all things and the sequence of power upon comprehension, even to the controlling of the turbulent sea of human life. With the science of universal evolution has come the faith in unending betterment. And this, when all is said, is the vital difference between ancient and modern politics: that for the ancients the fact of eternal mutation was a law of defeat and decay, while for us it is a law of renewal. If but the faith be wedded to the science, there can be no predictable limit to its fruits, however long be the harvesting.

FOOTNOTES:

INDEX

Aargau, 338, 346, 349

Abbott, Dr. E., 37, 106 n.

Abderrahman I, 154

---- III, 153

Abdy, Prof., 201, 373

Abortion in Greece, 102, 117

Abyssinia, 179

Academy, the French, 444 n., 445

Achaian League, 51

Adams and Cunningham, 331, 351 n.

Adrian IV, 235

AEschines, 50

AEschylus, 136

Aetius, 96, 185

AEtolian League, 51

Ager publicus, 77

Agis, 51, 104

Agrarian distress, 403-5

Agriculture, 88; Egyptian, 56; Roman, 76, 79, 82 sq., 94; Greek, 99, 108, 117; Feudal, 202; Italian, 221; Dutch, 328; English, 88, 348 n., 403; Scandinavian, 270, 283; Swiss, 347, 348

Alaric, 185

Alba Longa, 14

Alboin, 188, 194

Albuquerque, 358

Alcibiades, 46, 50

Alcuin, 189

Alexander the Great, empire of, 111

---- of Parma, 307, 309, 310

Alexandria, 133, 134

Alfonso de Sousa, 362

Alfred, 370 n., 375

Algiers, French. 57 n., 156-7, 177

Alkman, 132

Allen, C.-F., 264 n.

Almohades, the, 155

Almoravides, the, 155

Althusius, 441

Alva, 308

Amalfi, 194, 204

Ambrose, 194

Amphictyonic Councils, 53

Amsterdam, 315; bank of, 324

Anabaptism, 306, 307

Anarchism, 424

Anastasius, 96 n.

Anaxagoras, 46

Anglo-Saxons, 275, 369-76

Anne, 468

Anskar, 267

Antioch, 133

Antonines, 89, 113, 117, 166, 167

Antony, franchise policy of, 4 n.

Antwerp, 308, 310, 311, 313

Anund Jakob, 267, 272

Anytus, 50

Appenzell, 337, 338, 344, 347

Apuleius, 167

Aquinas, Thomas, 118 n., 212, 235, 440

Arab character, 146 sq.

Architecture, 150, 151, 192, 205, 220

Arianism, 97, 168

Aribert, 206

Ariosto, 230

Aristocracy, Roman, 17, 21, 22 sq., 29-30, 78; and culture, 62, 166; and politics, 70; Greek, 42, 49, 98, 109; Feudal, 200, 202, 209; Italian, 236, 245, 255; English, 288, 376, 379, 385, 390 sq., 396, 403, 410; Dutch, 306; Scandinavian, 275, 276, 277, 281; Portuguese, 355; Swiss, 336, 348; French, 391, 415 n., 461

Aristotle, 50, 127, 448 sq.; on militarism, 45; on slavery, 98, 133 n.; on Sparta, 101 n.; on population, 102; on education, 126; and Aquinas, 212

Aristophanes, 50, 135

Armada, 308, 311, 314, 399, 408

Arminianism, 310

Arnold of Brescia, 235, 246

Arnold, M., 434

Arnold, W.T., 78

Artaxerxes, 113

Art, evocation of, 63, 122, 134, 150, 159, 220, 327, 409; in Athens, 48-49, 106; in medieval Italy, 220-21, 225; in Holland, 327; in Portugal, 359; in England, 409

Arteveldt, J. van, 299

Ashley, Prof., 379 n., 394

Asia Minor, 55, 123

Associations, religious, 113, 115

Assyria, 135

Aston, Sir A., 428

Astronomy, 149, 150, 151

Athaulf, 186

Athens, variety of stock in, 16; social problem in, 40, 107; reforms of Solon in, 40 sq., 99; morals in, 47-48, 50; superstition and ignorance in, 45 sq.; art and letters in, 48-49, 106, 124; imports of, 84; commerce of, 99; buildings of, 105; silver mines of, 105-6; citizenship of, 124; retrogression of, 134

Attila, 185, 191

Attraction and repulsion in politics, 5-7, 23, 28, 202, 207, 210, 257 sq., 299, 369, 377, 386, 460; modes of, 70

Augustine, 34, 118 n., 168, 261

Augustus, 81, 83, 164

Australian aborigines, 128

Aurelian, 87 n., 184, 185

Autocracy. See Despotism and Tyranny

Avitus, St., 187

Babylonia, 68

Bacchic mysteries, 164

Bacon, 461

Bagaudae, the, 175

Bagehot, cited, 23 n., 57 n.

Bain, R.N., 264 n., 277 n.

Balfour, A.J., 72 n., 171 sq., 180 n.

Ball, John, 390

Banking, 218, 435

Barante, 292

Barneveldt, 310, 318

Barros, 359

Basle, 338, 344, 346, 348

Bayle, 326

Beaconsfield, 72

Becker, cited, 9

Becket, 377

"Beggars," Confederacy of, 306

Beghards, 305

Behn, Aphra, 442 n.

Belgium, 260, 307

Belisarius, 96, 184, 191, 194

Bent, J.T., 181

Bentham, 449

Berbers, 154 n., 155

Berlin, University of, 139

Berne, 336, 337, 338, 343, 344, 345, 346, 349

Bertrand, A., cited, 64

Bibliolatry, 152, 154, 157, 396, 405, 410

Bijns, Anna, 326

Bikelas, cited, 143, 144

Bishops and Italian cities, 198, 206

Black Death, 380, 384, 386, 387, 388

Blackstone, 449

Blake, 420

Blok, P.J., 292, 296

Blossius of Cumae, 81

Boccaccio, 226

Bodin, 449

Boeckh, 37, 41, 107, 108, 109

Boissier, cited, 159 n., 162

Bolingbroke, 437

Bologna, 205, 208, 211, 212

Bordier, 334, 335

Borghini, 217

Borgia, Cesare, 233, 253

Botta, cited, 229 n.

Boulting, 195 n., 196, 202 n.

Boyle, 447 n.

Brazil, 317, 361-68; population in, 362; prospects of, 366-67

Brethren of the Common Lot, 305

Bribery in Rome, 22

Britain, economic basis of, 59, 79

Browning, O., 181

Bruce, 308

Bruges, 297

Brun, 336

Brunehild, 186

Brussels, 297

Brutus, 79

Bryce, cited, 4, 58, 189 n., 199, 201

Buchanan, 441

Buckingham, 415

Buckle, on national character, 1 n., 4; on Montesquieu, 28 n.; on food and life conditions, 55; on Spanish fanaticism, 155, 304; on climate and civilisation, 361; on Magna Carta, 392; on Delolme, 392; on Divine Right, 440 n.; on Anne, 468 n.

Bullion delusion, 80, 464 sq.

Burckhardt, 182; as sociologist, 36; on Greek happiness, 47; on Sparta, 130; on Spain and Italy, 230, 233 n.

Burghley, 400, 406, 407

Burke, 453

---- U.R., cited, 119, 169, 191, 192

Burnet, 438, 439

Burrows, Prof., 123

Bursian, C., 65

Burton, Hill, 11, 414 n., 456

Bury, 38; on Roman Empire, 34 n.; on Solon, 43; on Christian disunion, 97 n.; on Heraclius, 116 n.; on Greek Art, 122 n.; on the Dorians, 130-31; on Byzantine superstition, 145 n.; on Roman currency, 175 n.

Busch, 392 n.

Butler, W.F., 181, 196, 197 n., 206, 211

Byzantium, 34, 93, 95, 96, 114 sq., 143 sq., 152, 186

Cade, Jack, 388, 406

Caesar, franchise policy of, 4 n.; revenue policy of, 73; policy of doles of, 82; policy in Campania of, 91; and Corinth, 110

Calderon, 359, 413

Calvin, 301, 343, 344, 398, 435

Calvinism, 306, 310, 326, 344, 396 n., 398

Camden, 398, 407

Camoens, 359

Cantu, 181

Capitalism, in antiquity, 86, 104, 108; in Florence, 218, 248 sq.; in Holland, 316, 318, 324; in America, 365; in England, 393, 403, 434-35, 462

Caracalla, 4, 175

Carlyle, 264 n., 419, 429-30

Carmagnola, 249

Carrel, A., 436 n., 437 n., 444 n.

Carthage, 28 n., 30, 86

Castruccio Castracani, 243, 255

Cathari, 220

Cato, 32

Cats, 307, 326

Catullus, 165, 166

Celibacy, Sacerdotal, 235

Celts, 187, 190, 192, 258, 279, 375, 378

Chancery, Court of, 432

Chapman, 412, 413

Charlemagne, 188, 189, 191, 192, 267, 295

Charles I of England, 410, 414 sq., 426, 443

---- II of England, 319, 320, 437, 438, 442, 443, 451

---- III of Spain, 363

---- IV, 246

---- V, 300, 301, 302, 304, 309 n., 311

Charleton, W., 444 n.

Chasles, Ph., cited, 74

Chastity, barbaric, 184

Chaucer, 384, 386

Chemistry, 149, 150

Chievres, 302

Child, Sir J., 316, 458, 462, 463 n., 464, 467

Chilperic, 186

China, polity of, 56, 57, 59-60, 67, 73, 180, 260; secret societies of, 26 n.

Chinese and Europeans, repulsions of, 6

Chivalier, 294 n.

Chivalry, 383

Christian II, 276

---- III, 277

Christianity, conditions of success of, 27, 114-15, 165; effects of, 28; and progress, 34-5, 179, 205, 272, 431; and Roman Empire, 95, 96, 97, 265; and heresy, 97, 115, 168, 300, 303, 344; spread of, 112, 114-15; and infanticide, 117-18; and slavery, 118 sq., 214 sq., 372-73; and culture, 142, 144, 168, 280; and Islam, 149, 157; in Gaul, 167; and morals, 186, 210, 272, 431, 434; and Italian disunion, 210; in Scandinavia, 265 sq., 272, 274; and fish eating, 293; in modern Holland and Belgium, 307; strife of sects in, 422

Chrysostom, 118

Church in politics, 96, 145, 152, 168-69, 198, 203, 206, 210, 223, 234, 235, 265, 274, 377, 391

Cicero, on Roman politics, 20-21; on manumission, 215

Cimabue, 220

Cincinnatus, 12, 19

City States, 29, 38 sq., 52, 53, 124, 179, 198, 202 sq., 209 sq., 286 sq., 295

Civilisation and superstition, 46; modern, roots of, 169

Civilisations, primary and secondary, 55 sq.

Clans, Highland, 11, 67

Clarendon, 437, 451

Class degradation, effects of, 62, 68, 372; relations in England, 376, 379; as political factor, 70

Classes, strife of, in Rome, 17 sq.; in Greece, 38, 45; in Florence, 229 sq.; in Flanders, 296-97; in Switzerland, 336, 350; in England, 393-94, 405

Claudian, 167

Claudius II, 185

Clemenceau, 271

Cleomenes, 51, 104

Clientes, Roman, 11

Climate and race, 193, 361

Cloacae, the Roman, 14

Clothaire, 186

Clovis, 187

Coal civilisations, 79, 88, 365, 366

Coinage, alleged debasement of, by Solon, 41; Roman debasement of, 175; Papal debasement of, 223; debasement of, by Henry VIII, 397. See currency

Colbert, 140, 315, 445, 446, 461, 464, 465

Cologne, 288

Colonies, Greek, 39, 48, 100; and culture, 63 n.; Roman, 86; Scandinavian, 271; Dutch, 312

Comines, 391

Comitia, Roman, 9 sq.

Commerce, Roman, 76-7, 80; Athenian, 99, 108; Greek, under Roman Empire, 113; Byzantine, 117; Italian, 211, 218-19, 221, 256, 383; Danish, 273; Norwegian, 284; Medieval, 288; Dutch, 297, 310 sq.; Portuguese, 357 sq.; Anglo-Saxon, 370; English, 380, 393, 404, 459; Irish, 453; Spanish, 461; and civilisation, 70, 99, 104, 109, 113, 205, 211, 221, 287, 315, 457, 458; and war, 297, 460

Compass, the, 205

Competition of societies, 58, 70

Comte, A., 2 n., 4

Conrad the Salic, 203

Conradin, 241

Conservatism and isolation, 56, 144; Chinese, 60; Egyptian, 125; and militarism, 132-33; English, 424

Constantine, 27 n., 114, 117, 215

Constantinople, evolution of, 116 sq.

Consuls and Italian cities, 198, 203, 207

Corinth, 105, 110, 131 n.

Corporations, religious, 160, 235, 377

Cox, Sir G., cited, 66, 161

Creed politics, 405, 415, 424

Creighton, Bishop, 401 n.

Cremona, 216

Crete, polity of, 59 n., 131-32, 133

Crichton and Wheaton, 264 n., 272, 273, 275

Cromer, Lord, discussed, 177 sq.

Cromwell, Oliver, 318, 417-21, 424-33, 453; Richard, 436; Thomas, 395

Crusades, effects of, 69; and slavery, 214, 296; and civilisation, 383

Culture, Greek, 46 sq.; and the sexes, 61; importance of diffusion of, 62

Culture-contacts, effects of, 57, 63; conditions of success of, 57, 58; and Greek civilisation, 64, 122; in Christendom, 69, 150; in Japan, 69, 70; in modern Europe, 138 sq.; and Saracen civilisation, 146; and Roman civilisation, 158, 163, 164; and post-Roman civilisation, 189, 193; and medieval Italy, 211, 219, 254; and England, 212 n.; and Scandinavia, 279; and Holland, 326; and Renaissance, 340; and England, 375

Cunningham, Dr., on Greek civilisation, 36, 129; on Roman expansion, 67; on Roman wars, 76 n., 78 n.; on Roman decline, 93-4; on Athenian expenditure, 106 n.; on Greeks and Phoenicians, 129, 150; on Black Death, 388; on the Tudors, 402; on Puritanism, 433; on the mercantile system, 466

Curiae, the Roman, 8 sq., 203

Currency, Roman, 80, 175; Byzantine, 96; Dutch, 311

Curtius, E., 130

Cybele, cult of, 163

Dahn, F., cited, 188 n.

Danby, 442

Daendliker, 331, 339 n.

Dante, 213, 217, 226, 233, 240 n.

Daremberg, Dr., cited, 147-48

Darien Company, 456

Daru, 255 n.

D'Aubigne, 430-31

David, J., 292

Davies, 291

Davis, Sir J., 67

---- H.W. C., 378

"Death," political, 33-4, 59

Decay, social, 22, 25, 32, 59, 69, 170 sq.; socio-physiological, 186; socio-psychological, 61, 112, 141, 280, 411-13

Defoe, 413

Dekker, 406 n.

De la Chambre, 445

Delacourt, 313

Delaunay, cited, 10, 11

Della Torre, 241

Democracy, Roman, 19 sq.; Greek, 38 sq., 46 sq.; French, 72; American, 38 n., 365, 366; Scandinavian, 276, 278; Flemish, 300; Dutch, 306, 310, 311; English, 388, 414 sq.; Italian, 209 sq., 225; Swiss, 350 sq.; conditions of success of, 52; and intellectual life, 139

Demosthenes, 50, 105, 136

Denmark, structure of, 265; political evolution of, 268, 271, 273, 273-74; religion in, 268; slavery in, 273, 274; commerce of, 273; Reformation in, 276-77; culture of, 280-81

Dennis, G., 185

Denton, Rev. W., 385

Descartes, 326, 446

Despotism, and food supply, 55-6; as political factor, 70; and art, 135 sq., 166, 220, 224 sq.; and culture, 141, 153, 224 sq.; and decadence, 173; in Holland, 299; in Portugal, 357-58; spirit of, 455

Deutsch, cited, 149 n., 157 n.

De Witt, 291, 317, 319, 324

Dicaearchus, 105

Dierauer, 331, 334

Diocletian, 96, 113, 175

Dionysos, cult of, 164

Diophanes, 81

"Divine Right," 440 sq.

Doge, the title, 204 n.

Dogma and intellect, 61

Doles, Roman, 26, 82, 87; Byzantine, 116

Domesday Book, 371, 376

Domitian, 166

Dorians, 130 sq.

Dozy, cited, 154 n., 155 n.

Drama, Greek, 126-27, 135; French, 140; Elizabethan, 140, 406, 409-13; Roman, 165; Spanish, 359, 413

Draper, 34, 56, 67

Drogheda, siege of, 427-30

Droysen, 135 n., 148 n.

Droz, E., cited, 3 n.

Druidism, 266

Drunkenness, English, 463, 467; Scandinavian, 278

Dryden, 439, 442

Duccio, 220

Duffy, Miss, 182

Dunham, 187, 195, 197 n., 264 n.

Dureau de la Malle, 24, 91

Dussieux, 465

Earle, Prof., 385

East Indies, 312, 324

Ecclesia, Athenian, 41

Economic causation, ix, 71; Roman, 75 sq.; Greek, 98 sq., 133 sq.; Italian and other, 212, 215 sq., 221; Scandinavian, 270, 277; Dutch, 293, 295, 306, 313 sq., 324; Portuguese, 359-60; Brazilian, 366; English, 397, 411, 412

Education and democracy, 63; Greek, 123, 126; Saracen, 153, 154 n.; Italian, 231, 247 n.; Scandinavian, 276; Dutch, 319, 325-26, 330; Portuguese, 364, 365; Swiss, 346, 353-54; Brazilian, 367; English, 391, 396, 419 n.

Edward III, 380, 384, 394 n.; IV, 392, 393; VI, 397

Effen, Van, 326

Egypt, effect of Nile on polity of, 56; civilisation of, 64; culture of, 68; art of, 125, 135; human sacrifice in, 129; modern, 177; Moslem, 222

Eichhorn, 191

Eleusinia, the, 132

Eliot, 415, 416

Elizabeth, 398, 399-402

Emerson, 457

Emigration, Greek, 100; Scandinavian, 270-71; Swiss, 348, 353

Emilius, Paulus, 78

Empire, sociological process of, in Rome, 25 sq., 33, 87 sq., 92, 166, 170 sq.; in Byzantium, 115 sq.; in Greece, 133 sq.; in Turkey, 176; in Florence, 249, 252; in Scandinavia, 265, 271; in Holland, 316, 324; in France, 320; in Britain, 323, 384, 386; in Portugal, 356 sq.; and literature, 359

Enclosures, 393, 403

England, evolution of, in Anglo-Saxon times, 61, 191, 192, 204, 370, 374-75; after Conquest, 69 n., 212, 288, 371 sq., 376, 384; in Tudor period, 392 sq.; process of Rebellion, 414-17; Cromwell's rule, 417-23; Restoration politics, 423, 436 sq.; influence on French culture, 138; influence on German culture, 139; and Spain, 406-7, 420; in eighteenth century, 229; Reformation in, 238, 396 sq.; Industrial evolution of, 458 sq.; present polity of, 72, 79, 87 sq., 261; and Holland, 318, 319, 320, 323, 425, 463; and France, 320, 384, 392

Ennius, 158, 165

Epicurus, 135

Epimenides, 133

Equality, schemes of, 104

Equilibrium, social, 71, 114

Erasmus, 348

Erik I and II, 268

Essex, 399 n., 406, 407

Etruscans and Romans, 16, 158, 159 n.; civilisation of, 25, 185; unity of, 68

Euripides, 46, 131

Europe, political variety of, 59

Exposure of infants, 100, 270

Ezzelino, 239

Falkland, 423

Fatalistic reasoning in politics, 178

Faustrecht, 286, 378

Favourites, royal, 382-83, 415, 468

Federalism, in Greece, 51-52; in Italy, 233; in Netherlands, 295, 309; in Switzerland, 331, 332 sq.

Ferdinand, Duke, 224

Ferguson, cited, 14

Ferrero, on Roman character, 8 n.; on Roman trade, 11 n., 76 n., 79 n., 83 sq.; as sociologist, 75; on Roman civilisation, 176

Feudalism, 199 sq., 295, 335, 371, 374, 395

Filmer, 441 n., 442, 443

Finance, Roman, 77 sq., 92 sq., 119-20, 175; Byzantine, 96, 116; Greek, 106 sq.; Spanish, 309, 311; Papal, 221, 223; Dutch, 310-11, 328; Portuguese, 363, 364; English, 88, 397-98, 419, 420

Finland, 278, 283 n.

Finlay, as sociologist, 38; on Roman finance, 78; on Roman decline, 94; on Byzantium and Lombard invasion, 95; on Eastern Empire, 97, 115, 119-20, 143; on Greece under Roman Empire, 113 n.; on Christianity and slavery, 118 n.; on philosophic schools at Athens, 143

Fisheries, Danish, 273-74; Dutch, 293, 311, 313, 317, 329; Portuguese, 355

Flanders, 288 n., 294, 295, 296, 302, 309, 311, 321, 380

Fletcher of Saltoun, 455

Flint, Prof., cited, 73, 74

Floods in Netherlands, 298

Florence, constitutions of, 202, 211, 240, 241, 243, 245; political evolution of, 206-7, 243 sq.; factions at, 202, 207, 213, 236 n., 239 sq.; and her allies, 208; industry of, 211, 218; wealth of, 217, 219; interest at, 217 n.; art in, 220, 226, 227 n.; and papacy, 223; under Duke Ferdinand, 224; literature of, 226; causes of eminence of, 229; commercial development of, 231; militarism at, 231; and Pisa, 237, 248, 252-53; and Venice, 243, 249; under Medici, 249 sq.; taxation in, 251; collapse of, 254

Food and polity, 11 n., 55, 65, 73, 293, 315

Ford, 413

Fowler, W. Warde, 37; cited, 23 n., 29 n., 66, 161 n.

France, intellectual evolution of, 138, 140, 212; and Holland, 319, 464-65; and England, 320, 323, 377-78; empire in, 320; religion in, 321; population in, 322-23; and Switzerland, 349

Franks, polity of, 186, 188, 192, 197

Frederick Barbarossa, 210, 216, 235

---- II, 211, 216, 219

---- the Great, 139

---- of Denmark, 276

Freedom of the press, 310, 344

Freeman, on Greek federation, 51-52; on Greek history, 66; on Athenian citizenship, 124 n.; on Simon de Montfort, 382

Free trade, 284, 465

French politics, 1-3. See France

---- Academy, 444 n., 445

---- Revolution, 72, 149 n., 397, 449

Fribourg, 337, 338, 344, 346

Fronde, the, 415 n., 436

Fronto, 167

Frontiers, theories of, 178

Froude, 402

Fustel de Coulanges, 52, 67, 265 n.

Fyffe, cited, 66

Gaeta, 204 n.

Galileo, 227

Galton, 121

Gardiner, on House of Commons, 380 n., 382; on Lollardism, 396 n.; on Scotch Calvinism, 398; on Elizabeth, 400 n., 401, 402; on Henry VIII, 401; on Eliot, 416; on Cromwell, 419-20, 425 n., 427 n.; on Lilburne, 424 n.; on Drogheda, 428-30; on Barbone Parliament, 432

Gasquet, Dr., 388

Gaul, Roman and Christian, 94, 167, 173, 192

Gaultier de Brienne, 244

Gee, 464

Geijer, 264 n., 272

Gelasius, 194

Geneva, 341, 343, 344, 347, 349, 350, 353, 410

Genius, in politics, 15; evocation of, 63, 121 sq.

Genoa, 204, 211, 218, 225, 229, 248; modern, 255-56

Geographical causation, 28, 124, 293, 295, 332, 335

Germany, effects of subdivision of, 58; trade of, 79; intellectual evolution of, 138-9, 340; political and social evolution of, 184 sq., 222, 286, 378; medieval, 216; Reformation in, 238, 239, 342

Ghent, 295, 296, 300

Ghibelines and Guelphs, 209-10, 226, 239 sq.

Gibbon, on Byzantium, 144; on population of Roman Empire, 172 n.; on pestilence in the Empire, 174; and Sismondi, 187; on Theodoric, 188 n.; on the Lombards, 196; on Roman slavery, 374

Giddings, 5

Gilds, German, 199; trade, 207, 379, 393, 394

Giles, H.A., cited, 6 n., 73 n.

Gillies, 38

Glarus, 336, 337, 338, 344, 347

Gneist, 375

Godkin, L., cited, 38 n., 62

Gold-mining, 80, 92-3, 358, 363, 460

Gondebald, 187

Gontran, 187

Gospels and slavery, 118

Goths, 184, 186, 192

Gouraud, C., 28 n.

Gray, 56

Gracchi, 20, 21, 24, 81, 82 n.

Gratian, 90

Grattan, T.C., 291

Greece, superstition and ignorance in, 46 sq.; structure of, 53, 64, 65; population in, 101 sq.; industry in, 109, 113; conquests of, 78, 98, 110; under Roman Empire, 112-14; evocation of art in, 123 sq.; literature in, 126 sq.

Greek civilisation, 64, 68, 121 sq.; in Italy, 29; evolution of, 36 sq., 98 sq., 159; modern, 156-57

"Greek fire," 116

Green, Captain, 455

Green, J.R., on Anglo-Saxons and Christianity, 266 n., 372; on English slavery, 372, 373, 374; on Reformation, 397; on Elizabeth, 400; on English poverty, 403 n.; on Hobbes, 421 n.; on Shaftesbury, 438 n.

Greene, 411, 412

Greenidge, cited, 12, 14 n.

Gregorovius, 182, cited, 188 n., 189 n., 210, 212 n.

Gregory the Great, 197, 212 n., 374

---- VII, 212 n. See Hildebrandt

---- X, 240

---- XIII, 223

Grenvelle, 304

Grisons, 338, 346

Grote, 37, 331; on Solon, 41; on Greek polity, 44; on Athenian Imperialism, 47 sq.; on Pericles, 49; on culture contacts, 58, 64; on "race," 64, 66, 131-32; on Lycurgus, 99; on Greek infantici de, 101; on Lesbos, 126; on Athenian drama, 127; on Sparta, 131; on Crete, 131-32; on Switzerland, 331 n., 332 n., 354

Grotius, 309, 310, 326, 442 n.

Grundy, Dr. G.B., 36, 65

Gubbio, 225

Guicciardini, F., 232 n.

---- L., 291, 313

Guilliman, 334

Guizot, on Roman Empire and Christianity, 26 n., 96; on European progress, 58; on Gaulish monasteries, 167; on Christian persecution, 168 n.; on Teutonic barbarism, 184 n.; on Charlemagne, 189; on France and Germany, 192 n.; on decline of slavery, 213-14, 215; on the Reformation, 238

Gustavus Vasa, 274, 277

Guthry, Bishop, 441

Hadrian, 113

Hakam I, 154

---- II, 153

Halifax, 451

Hallam, on genius, 121; on the Lombards and Italy, 198; on feudalism, 201; on Venice, 229; on Simon de Montfort, 382; on Henry VII, 392 n.; on English nobility under Henry VIII, 396; on Anne, 468 n.; on Ireland, 451 n.; on Whigs and Tories, 421 n.; on Charles I, 417 n.; on James I, 414 n.

Hamburg, 287

Handel, 140

Hannibal, 30

Hansa, 274, 286-90; of London, 287, 288, 393

Harald Bluetooth, 268

Harald Klak, 268

Hardwick, 266, 267

Haren, Van, 326

Harold Fairhair, 268

Harrington, 443

Harrison, F. 425-26, 428-30

Hartmann, L.M., 182

Hassencamp, 450 n., 452

Hawkwood, Sir J., 248

Hazlitt, W., cited, 396 n.

---- W. C, 181

Heeren, cited and discussed, 37, 39 n., 234, 237

Hegel, cited and discussed, 5 n., 58

---- Karl, 199, 379 n.

Hegewisch, 138

Hektemorioi, the, 41

Henry the Fowler, 197 n.

---- the Navigator, 356

---- IV of England, 391

---- V of England, 386, 391

---- VII of England, 394

---- VIII of England, 395, 401, 402

Heracleia, 104

Heraclius, 115-16

Heredity, official, 120, 199, 235

Heredium, the Roman, 12 sq.

Heresy, 97, 115, 168, 300, 303, 390

Herodotus, 127, cited, 44, 129

Hertzberg, 38, 67, 113 n.

Heyd, W. von, 183, 222

Hiero, 136

Hildebrandt, 59 n., 203, 206, 235

Hill, Rev. G., 371

Hippocrates, 127

Hippodamus, 104

Hisham, 154

Historiography, modern, viii, ix; Greek, 127

Hobbes, 421-22; on communism, 13

Hochart, on Constantine, 27 n.

Hodgkin, T., 181, cited 184 n., 202 n.

Holbein, 408

Holberg, 281

Holland, primary conditions of, 293; slavery in medieval, 295-6; empire of, 312; political evolution of, 294 sq.; historiography of, 291-2; industry in, 294, 296, 310 sq.; factions in, 296-7, 298, 299; despotism in, 300; revolt of, 301 sq.; religious distribution in, 307; constitution of, 309; commerce of, 310 sq., 328-9; finance and currency of, 310-11; public debt of, 312, 328; and England, 318, 320, 323, 425, 463; and France, 319, 320, 464-65; decline of, 321 sq.; capitalism in, 324; culture evolution of, 325 sq.; art in, 327-28; population in, 327, 328-30

Holm, 37, 134 n., 136 n., 141

Homer, 126

Honorius, 94, 173, 185

Hooft, 326

Hooker, 441

"Hooks and Codfish," 298

Horace, 165, 166

Houses, Athenian, 105; Italian, 205

Howell, 325, 463

Hudson, H., 312

Huguenots, 272, 303, 321, 343, 438

Humanists, Italian, 227

Hume, cited, 58, 102, 109, 133 n., 348 n.

Huns, 184, 185, 197

Hunt, W., 181

Huxley, cited, 61

Hygiene, ancient, 91

Ibn Khaldun, 155-56

Ibsen, 282

Iceland, 270, 271, 278 sq., 340

Ihne, cited, 16 n.

Illyria, 194

Image-worship, 145

Imperialism, Roman, 25 sq., 89; Athenian, 47 sq.; Greek, 50 sq.; Ancient and modern, 177 sq.; Barbaric, 189; Danish, 269, 271; Dutch, 318; British, 323, 384, 407, 420-21

India, evolution of, 74; British, 57 n., 177, 179; Portuguese, 358, 362

Indigitamenta, 160 n.

Indulgences, Catholic, 342

Industry, in Greece, 109; in Italian cities, 205, 211, 218-19; in Netherlands, 294, 296; in Iceland, 454; in Spain, 461; modern, 467

Infanticide, 26, 38, 100, 117

Innocent III, 236

---- IV, 210

Inquisition, 303, 308, 362, 406

Interest, Roman limitation of, 20; Roman, 79 and note; Florentine, 217 n.; in Holland, 313, 321

Ionia. See Asia Minor

Ireland, 189, 192, 378; English misgovernment of, 406, 418, 426-33, 450 sq.

Ireton, 429

Islam, 61, 149, 153, 154, 179

Isocrates, 50

Isolation and polity, 56, 144

Italy, structure of, 28; Greek cities of, 29; modern, economics of, 85; post-Roman, evolution of, 85, 183 sq.; medieval, culture evolution in, 90, 152, 209 sq.; republican collapse in, 233 sq. See Rome

Jacquerie, 387

James I, 398, 401, 414, 415, 461

---- II, 444, 452

Japan, evolution of, 69-70, 74

Java, 312, 329

Jeffreys, 444

Jesuits, 350, 362-63

Jewry, 67, 125, 146

Jews, modern, 358, 361

John II of Portugal, 355, 357

John, King, 392

Johnson, 442 n.

Jonson, Ben, 412, 413

Julian, 57 n., 94

Juste, 292

Justice, in Greece, 48

Justin, 95

Justinian, 96, 116, 118, 143, 449

Juvenal, 166

Kampen, J. van, 292, 307

Kant, 138; cited, 5

Keightley, 161

Kemble, J.M., 371, 372, 373

Keymor, 317, 325

Kings, Roman, 18

Kleisthenes, 44

Kleon, 50

Knox, 398

Knut, 268, 271

Koran, the, 154

Kyd, 411, 412

Ladislaus, 249

Laetus, P., 227

Laing, 281 n., 325

Laissez-faire, 135

Lamprecht, viii, ix

Land question, in Rome, 11 sq., 77; in Greece, 40, 104; in Anglo-Saxon England, 375

Lane-Poole, S., cited, 151, 155

Langlois and Seignobos, 421 n.

Language, in politics, 158 n., 191, 258, 385; and culture, 221, 326

Lanzone, 206

Larroque, cited, 214 n.

Laud, 415 n.

Laurium, mines of, 106-7

Law, Roman, 112, 197, 205; Teutonic, 195-96, 197; schools of, 212

Leagues, Greek, 51; Italian, 207; German, 286, 287, 336; Swiss, 334, 336 sq., 350

Lecky, 391

Leclerc, L., cited, 150

Leghorn, 224

Leibnitz, 325

Leicester, 400

Lennep, J. van, 292

Leo the Isaurian, 145

---- X, 221, 223, 253

---- H., 182, 199, 204 n., 206, 209 n.

Leopardi, 470

Le Play, 1 n., 34

Lesbos, 126, 136

Leslie, Cliffe, 405

Liberalism, 421, 423

Licinian laws, 19, 80

Lilburne, 424

Lisbon, 312, 358, 364

Literature, evolution of, in Greece, 126 sq.; in Rome, 165 sq.; in Italy, 212-13, 226; in Sicily and Provence, 219-20; in Scandinavia, 278 sq.; in Holland, 326; in Germany, 340; in Portugal, 359, 363; in England, 384, 408-13; and empire, 359

Livy, 164

Locke, 442, 446 and note, 448

Lollardism, 305, 390-91, 396

Lombards, polity of, 188, 194 sq., 203, 204

Long, G., 79 n.

Lope de Vega, 359, 413

Louis the Fat, 214

Louis XIV, 319, 320, 321, 436

Louvain, 297

Louvois, 320

Luebeck, 287

Lucan, 166

Lucca, 218

Lucerne, 334, 335, 338, 339, 346, 349

Lucretius, 165

Lucullus, 79 n.

Luther, 342

Lyall, Sir A., 177

Lycurgus, 44, 99

Lynch-law, 378

Macaulay, Lord, 76, 133 n., 255, 419 n., 423

---- G.C., 411-13

Mackintosh, 381 n.

McCrie, 238

McCullagh, 38, 292, cited 295

McCulloch, 292; on Roman doles, 83; on the Dutch, 328

McDiarmid, 407

Machiavelli, 226, 254; on the Lombards, 188 n.; on the Papacy, 210; on Florence, 217; ideal of, 233; on Guelphs, 239

Magellan, 357

Magna Carta, 380 n., 381, 391, 392

Mahaffy, as sociologist, 37; on prehistoric civilisation, 15; on Greek infanticide, 101; on Greek population, 102; on Greek commerce, 109; on Cilician pirates, 110; on Greek art, 123; on Sparta, 132, 133 n.

Mahon, 34

Maine, Sir H., 56, 448, 449

Maisch, 42

Maitland, F.W., 370 n., 371, 374

Malaria in Italy, 90-1

Malone, 442 n.

Mallet, E., 353

Malthus, cited, 26 n., 100, 273, 282-84, 352

Mandeville, 467, 468

Manley, 427-28

Marck, W. van der, 308

Marcus Aurelius, 167

Margaret of Norway, 275

Marignano, 341

Marius, 24

Marks, Alfred, 438 n.

Marlborough, 320

Marlowe, 411

Marvell, 421, 439 n.

Mary of England, 397

---- of Scotland, 399

Maspero, cited, 125 n.

Mathematics, 149

Matilda, Countess, 206, 207

Maurice (Emperor), 96, 115

Maurice of Orange, 310, 313

Maximilian I, 300

Mazarin, 415 n.

Mazdeism, 125

Medicine, evolution of, 127, 147 sq.; schools of, 212

Medici, the, 225, 227, 249 sq.

Megalomania, 261

Megara, 124 n.

Melville, Andrew, 398

Menander, 118, 135

Menard, cited, 132

Mencius, 73-4

Mental development in Greece, 46

Menzel, 139 n.

Mercantile system, 460 sq.

Merchant Adventurers, the, 459, 466

Merimee, 3

Merovingian Kings, the, 187, 191

Mexico, 361

Meyer, Ed., on Quirites, 9 sq.; on Roman land law, 12; on Greek taxation, 42; on Solon, 43 n.; on Greek civilisation, 64; on ager publicus, 77 n.; on Roman culture, 158 n.

---- Ernst von, cited, 150

Michel Angelo, 254

Milan, 194, 199, 206, 210, 211, 218, 219, 225, 241, 249

Militarism, and democracy, 21 sq.; Roman, 25, 55, 76; and culture, 61, 131, 153, 341; Spartan, 131; Saracen, 153, 154; Turkish, 157; Florentine, 231; Dutch, 318; Swiss, 341; English, 425

Mill, J.S., 58, 121

Milman, 146 n., 197

Milton, 426, 431, 441, 448

Mining, Roman, 80; Greek, 105-6; Brazilian, 363; medieval, 460

Ministerial Government, 437, 468

Mitchell and Caspari, 41, 42, 44 n., 136-37

Mitford, 37, 38

Mithraism, 27, 113, 165

Mommsen, on Quirites, 9; on the plebs, 10; on Roman land law, 12, 13; on Roman city life, 14 n.; on Roman taxation, 77; on the Antonines, 89; on Roman religion, 158, 160, 162; on antiquity of writing, 160 n.; on the Celts, 190, 192

Monasteries, 167, 402-3

"Money economy," 80

Monk, 436

Monopolies, trade, and civilisation, 59; Athenian, 108; Byzantine, 117; Dutch, 313, 315, 316, 463; English, 320, 321, 323, 404, 415, 459, 461 sq.; Flemish, 296; Papal, 223; Portuguese, 356, 358; Spanish, in Italy, 223; Hanseatic, 289

Montaigne, vii, 230

Montesquieu, on civil war, 25; as sociologist, 28 n.; on Hannibal, 30; on soil and polity, 56

Montmorency, 386

Moors. See Saracens

Morals, Greek, 47 sq.; Byzantine, 118; Frankish, 186-87; English, 395, 433

More, Sir T., 403 n., 405, 408

Morgarten, 335

Morin, F., cited, 3 n., 118 n., 465

Morley, Lord, cited, 66

Mosheim, 265-66, 434

Motley, 291; on Celts and Teutons, 187, 238, 300 n., 304, 307; on the Reformation, 238; on Dutch slavery, 295; on Spain and Holland, 302

Mountjoy, Lord, 440 n.

Mueller, K.O., cited, 130, 131 n.

Mummius, 110

Murray, Gilbert, 129

Mysteries, religious, 160

Mythology, Greek and Roman, 124, 159 sq.

Names of abuse, 372

Nantes, Edict of, 321

Napier, Capt., 181

Naples, 195, 204 n., 211, 224, 225, 249

Napoleon, 349; Prince, cited, 3 n.

Narses, 185 n., 188, 194

National character. See Race

National Debts, 312, 322, 364, 450

Nationality, notion of, 257 sq.

Navigation Act, 318, 425, 453, 463, 464

Navy, English, 294 n., 314; Spanish, 314; Dutch, 314

Nerli, 227 n.

Nero, 186

Netherlands. See Holland

Neuchatel, 347, 349

Newman, F.W., cited, 9

Niebuhr, cited, 11 n., 108

Noeldeke, 149 n., 151

Normandy, 376, 381

Normans, 191, 211, 375

North, Dudley, 466

Norway, structure of, 269; political evolution of, 268-69, 274, 277; religion in, 268-69; Reformation in, 277; population in, 282, 284, 285

Oates, Titus, 438

Odoaker, 185, 194

Odour in races, 6

Oebly, 344

Olaf the Lap King, 267: Tryggvason, 269; St., 269

Oligarchy, 255

Oman, cited, 117, 118

Orange. See William of

Orosius, cited, 186

Ortolan, cited, 10 n., 11

Otte, 264 n.

Otto I, 188, 189, 198, 201

Overton, R., 424 n.

Padua, 212

Paederasty in Greece, 103

Painting, Italian, 220-21, 223, 225, 288-89

Pais, Prof., 15

Palermo, 225

Papacy, and Italian disunion, 210, 234-35, 240 sq., 253; and culture, 212, 227, 237; and slavery, 215; and trade, 223; finance of, 223; and art, 225, 226; and celibacy, 235; and Rienzi, 246; and Florence, 246; and Divine Right, 440

Paparrigopoulo, 36

Parliaments, 378, 380 n., 381

Parma, 216, 240 n.

Parthian empire, 113

Paterini, 220

Patricians, the Roman, 17

Patriotism, 258, 262, 308, 406, 407; and art, 411

Patterson, W.R., 36, 76

Paul, 118

Paul the Deacon, 270

Pauw, De, 142

Pavia, 199

Pearson, C.H., 74, 378, 380 n.

Pecock, Bishop, 390

Pedro II, 366

Peele, 411, 412

Peisistratos, 42, 43-4, 137

Pelham, Prof., cited, 10

Pepys, 466

Pequods, the, 433

Pericles, 46, 48, 49, 105, 106, 124

Perrens, F.T., 181, 182, 226 n., 227 n., 249, 252 n.

Persia, 113, 115, 125, 156

Pertinax, 87 n.

Peru, 56, 361

Perugia, 225

Petit, cited, 101

Petronius, 166

Petty, 314, 316, 427, 467

Phaleas, 104

Pheidon, 104

Philip II, 301 sq., 309, 311, 312

---- IV, 304, 359, 413

Philip of Macedon, 50-1

Philippus, Lucius Marcus, 21

Philosophy, Greek, 47, 113, 127, 135

Phocas, 115

Phoenicia, 127, 129, 150-51, 159 n.

Physiology and sociology, 27 n., 71

Picton, J.A., 431 n.

Pignotti, 182

Pindar, 136

Piracy, Cilician, 110; Algerine, 223; Scandinavian, 270, 272, 293, 296

Pisa, 178, 205, 211, 224, 225, 226, 231, 237, 242, 248, 252

Pitt, 323

Plato, 50, 102, 109, 127

Plebs, the Roman, 9 sq., 15, 17 sq., 77, 163; privileges obtained by, 19 and n.

Pliny the elder, 86, 91

Pluquet, 270

Plutarch, 128, 133 n.

Podesta, the title, 240 n.

Poetry, Greek, 126; English during Commonwealth, 421, 439 n.

Poehlmann, R., 183

Poisoned weapons, use of, 129

Politics, definition of, 1, 468; theories of, 52, 62, 104, 233, 448

Pollock, Sir F., 448

Polyandry, 101

Polybius, cited, 103

Polytheism and politics, 266

Pombal, Marquis of, 281 n., 358, 363

Pompeius, 110

Pontalis, 292

Popish Plot, 438

Population in Rome, 19, 24, 26, 91; in Greece, 38 sq., 100 sq., 111, 117, 172; in Scandinavia, 270, 273, 329; in Roman Empire, 172 sq., 194; in Holland, 294, 327, 328-30; in Switzerland, 339, 348, 352 sq.; in Portugal, 329, 358; in Brazil, 362; in feudal England, 371 sq., 388-90; in France, 322-23; in Ireland, 427; control of, 52, 53

Populus, the Roman, 10 sq.

Portugal, evolution of, 355-68; exploration by, 221, 356 sq.; population in, 329; finance of, 363, 364

Positivism, 366 n.

Pott, cited, 9

Poverty in Rome, 17, 19 sq., 76 sq. (see Doles); in Greece, 39 sq., 98; and culture, 63; in Scandinavia, 272-73; in England, 380, 395, 390, 402-403, 404, 405, 434, 462-63, 467; in Holland, 325, 330

Powell, Prof. York, quoted, 279

Presbyterianism, 398, 410, 417, 444

Priesthoods, 125, 142, 160, 235, 266

Printing, effects of, 221, 226

Privateering, 319 n., 323

Procopius, 144

Procter, Colonel, 181, 197 n.

Progress, 469 sq.; European, factors in, 35; nature of, 54; in the East, 73, 180

Proletariate, Roman, 17, 80; Greek, 39 sq.; Flemish, 297; Dutch, 315; Italian, 244, 247 sq.; English, 380, 387, 434, 467

Protection, evocative, 135, 140, 224 sq.; 283, 314, 315

Provence, 219, 220

Prudentius, 35 n.

Publilius, 20

Puchta, 12

Pulszky, 398 n.

Puritanism, 343-46, 418 sq.; 430 sq.

Pym, 416

Pythagoreanism, 190 n.

Quirinus, 9

Quirites, the name, 9

Race, theories of, 1 sq., 23 n., 29, 31, 60, 64, 66, 123, 128 sq., 146 sq., 158, 183, 190, 193, 209, 233-34, 237, 257, 271, 275-76, 300 n., 304, 307, 339, 369, 378; crosses of, 50, 148, 164, 184, 271, 377; homogeneity in, 56, 184, 339; function of, in politics, 70

Raleigh, 314, 466

Ranke, 182, 184 n., 198, 450 n.

Rashdall, Dr., 212 n.

Rationalism, Greek, 46; Saracen, 155; medieval, 220; modern, 326, 422, 447

Ratzel, 59

Ravenna, 195, 204, 212

Reade, Winwood, cited, 64

Reber, 123

Redskins, civilisation of, 361

Referendum, 351

Reformation, 221, 237; in Italy, 237 sq., 306; in Spain, 238, 303, 306; in France, 238, 306; in Germany, 192, 238, 239, 305-6, 342; in Holland, 238, 301 sq.; in Scandinavia, 276 sq.; in Switzerland, 341 sq.; in England, 238, 395, 396-98; in Scotland, 398; in Iceland, 280

Religion in politics, 70, 177, 265 sq.; at Rome, 17, 19 n., 159 sq.; as substitute for politics, 26 sq., 397; paralysis of intellect by, 61, 237; and monarchy, 265 sq.

Rembrandt, 327

Renaissance, 220, 225, 227, 339-40

Renan, 147

Republics, Italian, 183-256

Republicanism, Portuguese, 367-68; English, 423, 442

Reumont, A. von, 182

Revolutions, South American, 366

Rhodes, 104, 140, 228

Richard II, 387, 390

---- III, 394

Richards, E., 192 n.

Richelieu, 140, 438

Rienzi, 233, 245-46

Rilliet, 331, 334, 335

Rio-Branco, 362 n.

Robertson, E.W., on Roman heredium, 12

---- W., 303

Rodogast, 185

Roger II, 218

Rogers, Prof. Th., 292; and economic interpretation of history, 75 n.; on trade in sixteenth century, 221-22; on Holland, 298; on population in medieval England, 388-89; on Lollardism, 396 n.; on enclosures, 404; on medieval production of silver, 460

Rolf, 271 n.

Rome, political evolution of, 4, 8 sq., 16 sq., 28 sq., 67; early civilisation of, 14, 15; economic life of, 11 n., 75 sq.; land system of, 11 sq.; effects of war in, 21 sq.; bribery in, 22; army finance in, 25; Pagan, religion of, 27, 159 sq.; and Carthage, 30; deterioration of, 31 sq., 69; barbarian invasion of, 57, 95-6; slavery in, 76; commerce in, 76-77; finance in, 77 sq., 172-73, 175; doles in, 82; agriculture in, 76, 79, 82 sq.; fever in, 90 sq.; confiscation of Pagan revenues in, 90; collapse of, 92 sq.; Church of, 95, 96, 168-69, 204, 206, 209, 212, 214 sq., 221, 234, 235, 399; and Greece, 110 sq., 134 sq., 158; law of, 112, 197, 205; art and letters in, 125, 158, 165 sq.; and Lombards, 195; influence of, on Italian cities, 204; in thirteenth century, 208; under Rienzi, 245-46; German conquest of, 254

Roscoe, 182, 223, 227 n.

Round, J.H., 378

Rousseau, 349, 449

Royal Society, 444-46

Royalism, 299, 300, 381, 394, 399, 416, 436

Royer-Collard, 2

Rubens, 327

Russia, culture-conditions of, 135, 139-40; and the Far East, 178

Rutherford, S., 441

Sabines and Romans, 9, 14, 15, 16

Sacra, Roman, 9

Sacrifice, human, 129

St. Gall, 346, 349

Saint-Simon, 2 n.

Salerno, 212

Salimbene, 240 n.

Salmasius, 441 n.

Salting, 294

Salvation Army, 28 n.

Salverte, cited, 5, 56

Salvian, 35 n., 119, 214

Samber, 464 n.

Sappho, 126, 136

Saracens, and Christendom, 69; and Byzantine trade, 117; civilisation of, 146 sq.; and Italy, 197, 211, 212 n.; and Sicily, 219; and Provence, 219

Savigny, 191, 203

Savonarola, 252

Saviour Gods, 115, 164

Scandinavia, prospects of, 260-61, 285; evolution of, 264 sq.; histories of, 264 n.; religion in, 266 sq., 272; population in, 270, 273, 282 sq.; social conditions in, 272-73, 278; Reformation in, 276 sq.; separatism in, 275-76, 278; culture evolution of, 278 sq.

Schaffhausen, 338, 344, 347

Schanz, 392 n., 458

Scherer, H., cited, 222

Schlegel, 413

Schwegler, cited, 10, 12, 13

Schweitzer, 264 n., 273 n.

Schwytz, 332, 333, 337, 338, 344, 347

Science, evolution of, 127, 145 sq., 281, 326, 348, 444 sq.

Scotland, intellectual evolution in, 61, 398, 414 n., 456; union with England, 455-57

Sculpture, evolution of, 125 sq., 135, 142, 161, 162

Seebohm, 370 n., 388

Seeley, on decadence, 174-75; on small nations, 259; on national greatness, 261; on Holland, 317; on England and Spain, 433 n.

Selim I, 222

Semites, evolution of, 67, 146 sq.

Senate, the Roman, 18, 87, 163

Seneca, 434

Senior, N., cited, 65

Separatism, 132, 209, 231-32, 275, 276, 298, 335, 422

Servius Tullius, 15, 16

Sexes, equality of, 61, 142, 143, 150

Sextus Empiricus, 100

Sforza, 225, 249

Shaftesbury, First Earl, 437 sq.

---- Third Earl, cited, 5-6, 281 n., 449

Shakespeare, 405-7

Sheep farming, 403, 404

Sherborne, Bishop, 449

Shipping, Dutch, 313, 314, 315, 329; French, 315; English, 370, 402, 458, 464; Irish, 453

Shuckburgh, cited, 29, 31, 77

Sicily, taxation of by Rome, 31; and Saracens, 219; literature of, 219; revenue of, 224; medieval invasions of, 241 sq.; Parliament in, 381

Sidney, Algernon, 439, 442, 443

Siena, 220, 225

Silk manufacture, 116, 120, 218, 255

Silver, Greek production of, 105-6; medieval production of, 460

Simon de Montfort, 378, 381, 382

Simonides, 136

Sismondi, 182, 350; on the Merovingians, 187; on the tenth century, 189, 197; on the Lombards, 195, 198; on feudalism, 202; on Italian Republics, 205 n.; on Provence, 220 n.; on Papal rule, 223; on despotism and letters, 230; on Gaultier, 245; on Italian proletariate, 247; on the Medici, 249; on national egoism, 259 n.

Sixtus V, 223

Slave-trade, Portuguese, 356; English, 374, 407

Slavery, and civilisation, 62-63, 176-77; Roman, 23-24, 76, 81, 94, 110, 112-13; Greek, 39 and note, 43, 101, 110, 133 and note; Christian, 118 sq., 213 sq.; Brazilian, 362, 363, 365; Scandinavian, 273, 274; Dutch, 293, 295; Portuguese, 356, 358; Swiss, 332; English, 370-74, 380, 388, 418; decline of, 213 sq.

Slavs, 115, 117, 264

Smith, Adam, 59 n., 215, 324, 382, 464, 465, 467

Snobbery, national, 261-62

"Social contract," 349, 448

Socialism, 352

Sociology, course of, 60, 147; in seventeenth century, 316

Socrates, 46, 102, 127

Soleure, 337, 338, 344, 345, 347

Solon, 40 sq., 99, 100

Somaliland, 129

Sousa, Alfonso de, 362

Spain, Roman, 23, 24, 80, 92, 173; Christian, evolution of, 156, 221, 222-23, 305; Parliament in, 382; and Portugal, 360-61; and Italy, 223-24; and Holland, 301 sq.; Inquisition in, 303; finance of, 311; and England, 406-7; prospects of, 156, 260; stagnation of, 222-23, 230, 311, 361; industry in, 461; Gothic, 191; Saracen, 150 sq.

Spalding, 136, 181, 224

Sparta, polity of, 51, 98, 101, 103-4, 130 sq.; women in, 130 n., 142

Spencer, H., 2 n.

Spiegel, 146 sq.

Sprat, 444 sq.

Spreghel, 326

Sprengel, cited, 150

"State," the word, 309

Staley, E., 182

Stephen, King, 377

Stephens, H.M., 355 n., 359, 362 n.

Stilicho, 96, 185

Stoics, 118-19

Strabo, 103

Strafford, 415 n., 437, 453

Strife, modes of, 6-7, 70

Struensee, 281

Stubbs, Bishop, on Teutons, 196; on feudalism, 200, 201; on Spain and Germany, 305; on Normans, 375; on Parliament, 387 n.; on Magna Carta, 392; on English commerce, 403 n.; on enclosures, 404

Suarez, 440-41, 450

Sulla, 21, 25, 82, 86, 110

Sumptuary laws, 415

Superstition, Roman, 27; Greek, 46; Byzantine, 145; and natural phenomena, 304

Sweden, structure of, 265; political evolution of, 267, 274, 275; religion in, 267; polygamy in, 272; slavery in, 274; population in, 283-84, 329

Switzerland, 260-61; structure of, 67; evolution of, 331 sq.; histories of, 331; population in, 339, 352 sq.; culture evolution of, 339, 341 sq.; Reformation in, 342 sq.; modern, 350 sq.

Sybaris, 39 n.

Symes, Prof., cited, 389

Symonds, J.A., 182, cited 96, 197 n., 210, 224-25, 238; discussed, 225-32

Synthesis, 5

Syracuse, literature at, 136

Tacitus, 118 n., 184

Taine, 1-3

Tanquelin, 306

Tasso, 230

Taxation, Roman, 31, 77, 110; Athenian, 42; Byzantine, 119-20; Moslem, 152; Dutch, 321 n., 322; English, 395, 404, 415, 416; Spanish, 223, 300, 311; Florentine, 251; Papal, 223; Venetian, 228; Scandinavian, 278

Tell, myth of, 334-35

Temple, Sir W., 291, 315, 319, 321 n., 324, 449

Testa, 215 n.

Teuffel, on Roman degeneration, 32-3

Teutomania, 183, 187, 190, 192, 238, 300, 304, 307, 378

Teutonic evolution, 184 sq., 306, 340

Tertullian, 441 n.

Theodoric, 187-88, 191, 194

Theognis, 40

Theresa of Portugal, 355

Thessaly, 132, 133

Thierry, 385 n.

Thirlwall, 37; cited, 103, 106 n., 136 n.

Thirty Years' War, 460

Three, the number, 8

Thucydides, 45, 49, 128

Thurgau, 338, 346

Ticino, 338, 346, 349

Tocqueville, De, 1 n., 62

Toleration, 438, 450

Torquemada, 303

Totila, 187

Traill, H.D., 454

Trench, Bishop, 451 n.

Trollope, T.A., 181, 236 n.

Troubadours, 219, 220

Tuebingen, 139

Tucker, Dean, 322-23

Turkey, religion in, 154; prospects of civilisation in, 157, 176, 260; empire in, 176

Turner, Sharon, 370

Tyndale, 390

Tyranny, effects of, 51, 173; and art, 135 sq.; Greek, 137; at Florence, 244; in England, 392 sq.; in Scotland, 398

Twysden, 398

Ulster, 454

Umiliati, 218, 289 n.

United States, civilisation of, 88, 119, 365

Universities, 139, 211, 325, 348, 419 n.

Unterwalden, 332, 333, 337, 338, 344, 347

Urban II, 215

Uri, 332, 333, 337, 338, 342, 344, 347

Usher, 440

Usury, Roman, 76, 78, 79; Roman legislation against, 20; in Greece, 39-40; medieval, 217; in England, 435

Utopia, 469

Utrecht, 295

Valais, 337, 338, 346, 349

Valentinian, 90, 93

Valla, L., 227

Vandals, 92, 191

Vandyck, 327, 416

Variation, social, 144

Varro, 161 n.

Vaud, 338, 346, 349, 352

Vaughan, 418

Velasquez, 135, 327, 359, 413

Venice, evocation of art in, 63, 225, 226, 228; trade of, 120, 222, 228, 293; rise of, 195, 254; and Byzantium, 204, 254; and Turks, 222; social conditions in, 227-28; and Florence, 241; and France, 253; polity of, 254-55

Verity, Dr. R., cited, 27 n.

Verres, 32

Vespasian, 166 n.

Vicente, 359

Vico, 11, 227

Vieusseux, 331

Viglius, 304

Vijnne, 292

Villainage in England, 371 sq.

Villani, G., 217, 247 n.

Villari, Prof., 182, 218, 226, 236 n.

Villemain, 420 n., 433

Vinogradoff, 371, 372

Virgil, 165, 166

Viscontis, 241, 245, 246, 248, 249

Visigoths, the, 119, 191

Volney, 34

Voltaire, 59, 349

Vondel, 326

Wagner, 140

Waitz, 200

Walckenaer, 34, 56, 74, 121

Wales, 258, 384

Waller, 421

Walloons, 307

War, persistence of, 6-7; and democracy, 21, 24, 45, 72; private, 202, 286, 290; in medieval Italy, 216, 237; and class relations, 379-80; and civilisation, 383, 386; alleged benefits of, 383

Ward, Lester, 121

Wealth, adventitious, effects of, 59

Weaving, 205, 294

Webster, 413

Wends, the, 266, 272

Wenzelburger, 292

Whigs and Tories, 421 n.

Whitney, 59-61

Whittaker, T., 52

Whistler, cited, 122

Wiclif, 390

Wicquefort, 309

William of Orange, 301, 308, 309, 318

---- the Conqueror, 376

---- III, 450

Wissowa, 160 n.

Wittich, 185

Women, status of, 61, 141-42, 143, 150, 151

Woollen trade, 218, 289 n., 294, 380, 403, 453, 459

Writing, antiquity of, 160 n.

Xenophon, 105, 107

Ypres, 296

Zeno, 135

Zimmern, Miss, 289 n.

Zola, on war, 6

Zschokke, 266 n., 331

Zug, 336, 337, 338, 347

Zurich, 336, 337, 338, 339, 342, 343, 344, 345

Zwingli, 342, 343

PRINTED BY WATTS AND CO., JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.