The Evolution of Climate

Chapter Ii Gives a Brief Account of the Climatic Record As a Whole,

and Chapter III deals with the Tertiary period considered as leading up to the Quaternary Ice Age. Chapter IV discusses the subdivisions of the Glacial period, and the conflict between advocates of one and of repeated glaciations. Chapters V to XII give brief accounts, from the standpoint of a meteorologist, of the glacial history of Northern Europe, the Mediterranean Region, Asia, North and South America, Africa, Australia, and the South Polar regions. In Chapters XIII to XV post-Glacial climatology is considered. Chapters XVI and XVII deal with the major climatic fluctuations of the “historic” period, and finally, in Chapters XVIII and XIX, is a short discussion of the influence of climate on the evolution and history of man. A brief bibliography concludes each chapter.

THE EVOLUTION OF CLIMATE

CHAPTER I. Factors of Climate and the Causes of Climatic Fluctuations

FACTORS OF CLIMATE AND THE CAUSES OF CLIMATIC FLUCTUATIONS

The climate of any point on the earth’s surface depends on a complex of factors, some of them due to influences arriving from outside the earth, and others purely terrestrial. Since any variations of climate must be due to a change in one or more of these, it is necessary, before we can discuss changes of climate, to consider briefly what the factors are.

The only important extra-terrestrial factor of climate is the amount of radiant energy which reaches the borders of the earth’s atmosphere from the heavenly bodies—that is, from the sun, for the moon and stars can be ignored in this connexion. The only other conceivable factor is the arrival of meteorites, bringing kinetic energy which is converted into heat, and introducing cosmic dust into the atmosphere; but it is highly improbable that this is of appreciable effect.

The amount of solar radiation which reaches the earth depends in the first place on the total radiation emitted by the sun, and in the second place on the distance of the earth from the sun, both of which quantities are variable. It has been calculated that if other factors remained unchanged an increase of ten per cent. in the solar radiation would raise the mean temperature of the earth’s surface by about 7° C., or between 12° and 13° F., with, of course, a corresponding fall for a decrease.

After the sun’s radiation reaches the outer limits of the earth’s atmosphere its nature and intensity are modified by the composition of the air through which it passes. In general the air itself is very transparent to the small wave-lengths which make up the solar rays, but the presence of fine dust, whether of volcanic or of cosmic origin, has been shown by Humphreys to be a distinct hindrance to their passage, so that volcanic eruptions of an explosive nature, such as that of Krakatoa in 1883, La Soufrière (St. Vincent) in 1902, or Katmai (Alaska) in 1912, may result in a fall of temperature over the world as a whole.

The temperature of the earth is determined by the balance between the radiation received from the sun and the terrestrial radiation to space, and a decrease in the latter would be as effective in raising the mean temperature as an increase in the former. The use of glass for greenhouses depends on this principle; for glass is transparent to heat rays of small wave-length, but is largely opaque to the rays of greater wave-length which make up terrestrial radiation. Certain constituents of the atmosphere, especially water-vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone, are effective in this way, and variations in the amount of these gases present may affect the temperature.

The angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth’s surface is a highly important factor. Within the Tropics the sun at midday is nearly vertical throughout the year, and the mean temperature in these regions is correspondingly high; on the other hand, during the long polar night the sun is not seen for half the year, and very low temperatures prevail. There is thus a seasonal variation of the heat received from the sun in middle and high latitudes, the extent of which depends on the “obliquity of the ecliptic,” i.e. the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit round the sun, and any changes in this factor must alter the seasonal variation of climate.

Further, since the climate of any place depends so closely on its latitude, it follows that if the latitude changes the climate will change. A ship can change its latitude at will, but we are accustomed to regard the position of the “firm ground beneath our feet” relatively to the poles as fixed within narrow limits. This stability has, however, been questioned from time to time, mainly on evidence derived from palæoclimatology, and theories of climatic change have been based on the wanderings of continents and oceans. Finally, local climate is intimately bound up with the distribution of land and sea, and the marine and atmospheric currents resulting therefrom, and on elevation above sea-level, both of which factors, as we shall see, have suffered very wide variations in the geological past.

Nearly all the theories which have been put forward to account for geological changes of climate, and especially the occurrence of the last or Quaternary Ice Age, are based on the abnormal variation of one or other of the above factors, and we may consider them briefly in turn. Very few have ever been taken seriously. In the first place, we can at once dismiss fluctuations in the radiation emitted by the sun as a cause of great changes of climate. It is true that many small fluctuations are traceable directly to this cause, such as the eleven-year periodicity of temperature and rainfall; but these fluctuations are, and must be, greater at the equator than at the poles, while the fall of temperature during the Glacial period reached its maximum near the poles and was least at the equator. Moreover, there is not the slightest direct evidence in support of such a theory, and it can only be admitted when all other hypotheses have failed.

The “astronomical” theory of the cause of climatic fluctuations is associated chiefly with the name of James Croll. Croll’s theory connects abnormal variations of climate with variations, firstly of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, and secondly of the ecliptic. In periods of high eccentricity the hemisphere with winter in aphelion is cold because the long severe winter is far from being balanced by the short hot summer; at the same time the opposite hemisphere enjoys a mild equable climate. This theory commanded instant respect, and still finds a place in the text-books, but difficulties soon began to appear. The evidence strongly suggests that glacial periods did not alternate in the two hemispheres, but were simultaneous over the whole earth; even on the equator the snow-line was brought low down. Moreover, on Mars the largest snow-cap appears on the hemisphere with its winter in perihelion. Although Croll’s reasoning was beautifully ingenious he gave very few figures; while the date which he gives for the conclusion of the Ice Age, 80,000 years ago, has been shown by recent research to be far too remote, 15,000 years being nearer the mark.

Croll’s theory has recently been revived in an altered form by R. Spitaler, a Czecho-Slovakian meteorologist, who calculated the probable alteration in the mean temperature of each latitude under maximum eccentricity (0.7775) and maximum obliquity (27° 48′), the distribution of land and water remaining unchanged. The results are shown in the attached table, where - means that the temperature was so much below the present mean, and + that it was so much above.

-------+-------------------------+-------------------------- | Aphelion December. | Aphelion June. +-------------------------+-------------------------- | Winter. Summer. Year. | Winter. Summer. Year. +-------------------------+-------------------------- | °F. °F. °F. | °F. °F. °F. N. 60° | -9 +15 -1 | -5 -4 -1 30° | -13 +13 -2 | +1 -8 -2 Equator| -8 +4 -2 | +1 -6 -2 S. 30° | -6 +1 -2 | +3 -5 -2 60° | -2 -1 -1 | +1 -2 -1 -------+-------------------------+--------------------------

Spitaler claims that these differences are sufficient to cause a glacial period in the hemisphere with winter in aphelion, but from this point his theory departs widely from Croll’s. During the long severe winter great volumes of sea water are brought to a low temperature, and, owing to their greater weight, sink to the bottom of the ocean, where they remain cold and accumulate from year to year. But the water warmed during the short hot summer remains on the surface, where its heat is dissipated by evaporation and radiation. Thus, throughout the cold period, lasting about 10,000 years, the ocean in that hemisphere is steadily growing colder, and this mass of cold water is sufficient to maintain a low temperature through the whole of the following period of 10,000 years with winter in perihelion, which would otherwise be a genial interval. In this way a period of great eccentricity becomes a glacial period over the whole earth, but with crests of maximum intensity alternating in the two hemispheres. Unfortunately the numerical basis of this theory is not presented, and it seems incredible that a deficiency of temperature could be thus maintained through so long a period. Further, the difficulty about chronology remains, and the work brings the astronomical theory no nearer to being a solution of the Ice Age problem than was Croll’s.

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