Section Ii.--Igneous Causes.

I. Of the Temperature of the Mass of the Earth.--Heat has been the most efficient agent in determining and modifying the structure of the earth; and, in order that the explanations of the phenomena referable to this cause may be intelligible, some idea must be formed of the actual present condition of the mass of the earth with respect to heat.

At any point of the surface there are variations of temperature, depending on external causes. But these variations are found to extend only a little way below the surface,--never more than a hundred feet. At greater depths, it is found that the temperature invariably increases with the depth. Deep mines have always a temperature above the mean annual temperature at the surface. The water obtained by deep boring is always tepid when it comes to the surface. The thermal springs, so abundant in this country and in Europe, are so situated as to justify the impression that their waters come from great depths. To make these general observations of any value, we must determine the law by which the temperature increases. The result of all the observations yet made, in mines and upon wells and springs, is that, below the first hundred feet, the temperature increases by one degree of Fahrenheit's scale for every forty-five feet.

Regarding this law of increment as applicable to all depths, at ten miles below the surface we should have a temperature above that produced by the combustion of wood; and at twenty-five miles, a temperature of three thousand degrees, by which nearly all mineral substances would be reduced to a state of fusion.

The general conclusion of a temperature sufficient to melt the mineral substances of which rocks are composed, at no considerable distance below the surface, is confirmed by the fact that portions of the interior of the earth--at least, at the volcanic centres--are in a melted state. The intimate connection between some volcanoes situated a hundred miles or more apart, so that they are alternately in a state of activity and rest, indicates that these centres are connected,--that subterranean melted lava extends from one to the other, so that when one is active, the elastic force is relieved at the other. These deep-seated lakes of lava must therefore underlie large areas.

We are justified, then, in concluding that the mass of the earth, with the exception of a comparatively thin superficial layer, has a very high temperature.

By way of accounting for this temperature, it is now generally assumed that the earth was originally in a state of fusion; that it was a mass of liquid lava (if, indeed, it had not a temperature sufficient to reduce it to the aëriform state). Starting with this assumption, there must necessarily be a gradual reduction of temperature by radiation, and a time must arrive when the surface would be crusted over with solidified lava; and this crust would increase in thickness as the cooling advanced, the interior still retaining its heat and liquidity. The present condition of the crust of the earth, its form, that of an oblate spheroid, with the exact difference of the equatorial and polar diameters which is found to exist, as well as the phenomena of volcanic eruptions, will all admit of explanation on this hypothesis.

It has, however, been rejected by some; and, to account for the heat of the interior of the earth, it is suggested that, if the bases of the earths and alkalies, particularly potassium, sodium and calcium, exist in their metallic state beneath the surface, the rapid oxidation of them by the access of water would generate heat of sufficient intensity to melt the oxidized materials, and thus account for the phenomena attributable to heat.

Either of these hypotheses may be adopted; but it is not necessary to account at all for the existence of this temperature. The fact is susceptible of proof; and, though we may not be able to frame any hypothesis to account for its existence, we may yet employ the fact in the explanation of other phenomena.

II. The Action of Internal Heat in producing Volcanoes.

The phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes are evidently produced by some force operating from below. The effect of heat alone would be to reduce the rock to a liquid state. There is no reason to suppose that it is ever sufficient to reduce them to the aëriform state. The elastic force must therefore depend upon some other substance associated with the lava, and this substance is water.

This will be shown by an examination of lavas. At the time of their ejection, they are in a fluid or semi-fluid state; but it is not a complete fusion. Even the most fluid lavas contain particles of minerals in a solid state. The liquidity depends upon the fusion of the more fusible portions, and upon the steam of water at a high temperature, which fills the interstices between the solid particles. The porous character of cooled lavas is produced by the steam which filled the cavities previous to solidification. Steam always escapes from the surface of a lava current while it is cooling, and it is always discharged in immense volumes from the orifice of eruption, in connection with the lava, and especially at the close of an eruption.

The geographical position of volcanoes, also, leads to the conclusion that water is essential to their activity. There are five principal lines of volcanic activity. One, commencing at the southern extremity of South America, extends northward along the Andes and Cordilleras to California or Oregon. The second has a north-east and south-west direction, from the Aleutian Islands through the Kurule, Japanese, and Philippine islands, till it meets the third line, lying in a nearly east and west direction, embracing Sumatra, Java, and most of the Pacific volcanic islands. A fourth band commences in the Grecian islands, and extends westward so as to include the volcanoes of Italy and the adjacent islands, and the Azores. The fifth band embraces the volcanic islands of the West Indies, crosses Mexico in about the latitude of the city of Mexico, and extends into the Pacific. There are also some isolated centres of volcanic activity, such as Iceland. These volcanic bands embrace about three hundred volcanoes. It will be seen that they must nearly all be in close proximity to the ocean, or to large seas. About two-thirds of them are on islands. Moreover, the volcanic vents which are wholly submarine are probably very numerous.

This circumstance of the position of volcanoes establishes a presumption that they cannot exist at a distance from some large body of water; and, taking it in connection with the constant presence of aqueous vapor in lava, we are justified in the conclusion that the presence of water is an essential condition of volcanic activity.

Knowing that heat and water exist at the volcanic centres, it is not difficult to form an idea of their mode of operation. The water, diffused through the interstices of the lava, and subjected to a temperature sufficient to melt the lava, would possess an elastic power, which, though never computed, we may well suppose capable of overcoming any resistance which the crust of the earth might present. The repressing force will be the tenacity and weight of the superincumbent strata. Whenever the elasticity is superior to this repressing force, it will manifest itself in the fracture of the strata, and often in the ejection or lava to the surface.

This fracturing of the strata, produced by an uplifting subterranean force, is believed to be the cause of the noise and the vibratory motion which are the chief phenomena of earthquakes. The elastic force may raise lava to the surface, and thus the fracture would become a volcano. But the force may expend itself by the discharge of vapor into the fissure, or by merely filling it with lava. In either case, the only evidence of the existence of the volcanic force would be the noise and the wave-like motion experienced at the surface. The cause of the volcano and earthquake is therefore the same, though the phenomena which characterize them are different.

When the strata are is thus fractured, lava may for a time be discharged along the whole line. By the cooling of lava in the fracture, it would become partially reunited. Still, this would be the line of least resistance. It would therefore be again burst through in certain places, which would long continue to be orifices of discharge, and thus the original fracture would determine a line of volcanic activity.

The repressing force may become greater at an orifice of eruption than at some other point, either by the great accumulation of ejected materials around the opening, or by the dormancy of the volcano long enough for the complete solidification of the lava with which the channel was filled. The least resistance may then be far from any previous vent, when a new orifice of discharge will be opened, and a new volcano make its appearance. It seems probable, also, that volcanoes may become extinct by the reduction of temperature at the volcanic centre, and that new volcanic centres may be formed; but the cause of this change of temperature is not yet well understood. New volcanoes have broken out in the sea, near Iceland, in several instances; others in the volcanic line east of Asia. Graham Island, situated between Sicily and Africa, was formed by an eruption which broke out in the bed of the sea where the soundings were more than one hundred fathoms. The island was at one time two hundred feet 'above the sea, and three miles in circumference. It was, however, gradually destroyed by the action of the waves, and now remains a dangerous reef, covered by less than two fathoms water. The volcano of Jorullo, in Mexico, was formed in this way. Previous to the formation of the mountain, the region where it now is was a cultivated table-land. During the year 1759 volcanic action commenced and continued, until, at the expiration of twelve months, a cone had been formed having an elevation of sixteen hundred feet above the adjacent plain.

An orifice of eruption is at first but little elevated above the general surface; but, by the accumulation of ejected matter, a cone is at length formed around the vent. The upper portion of a cone always consists of these materials, but there may also be in progress a general elevation of that part of the earth's crust, and the cone will partake of that general elevation. The cones of the Andes owe their height, in a great measure, to a general movement of elevation; those of Ætna and Vesuvius, in a greater degree, to accumulation of ejected matter.

In either way, the height may become so great that the force necessary to raise a column of lava to the top would be greater than the sides of the cone, weakened as they always are by fractures in all directions, can sustain. Hence, the highest craters of Ætna and South America have long been closed, and the lava escapes through fissures at a lower level, and lateral cones are produced.

The form which the materials have, when ejected from volcanoes, depends mainly upon the degree of liquidity of the lavas at the volcanic foci. If the liquidity is very perfect, the aqueous vapor will readily rise through the lava. The steam thus separated will drive before it whatever rocks, or previous lavas, may obstruct it. In their progress they would be reduced to sand and powder, and ejected as volcanic cinders. (Fig. 79.) If the lava possess considerable viscidity, the aqueous vapor will separate with more difficulty, and the lava and vapor will ascend the channel together. Large bubbles of vapor will, however, collect with more or less of frequency; and, as they rise through the lava, will drive forward a portion of it, and cause the overflow to take place by pulsations. As the bubbles reach the surface, their bursting causes the loud reports, which are compared to the discharge of heavy artillery. With each explosion some of the lava will be projected violently into the air, and, cooling, will fall to the surface as scoriæ,--or, if the lava be highly vitreous, it will be drawn out into fibres, and descend as volcanic glass.

III. Geological Phenomena referable to Volcanic Action.

Volcanic agency has probably never been less than it is now, and we ought therefore to find its effects very general and important.

1. The most obvious of these effects are the fractures with which the crust of the earth is everywhere intersected. The uplifting force upon which all volcanic phenomena depend would necessarily fracture the crust, and the wave-like motion resulting from the fracture would cause numerous secondary fractures, having a parallel direction. They are often of such extent, during earthquakes, as to endanger life. During the great earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, a fracture opened of sufficient width to swallow up the quay, and several thousands of persons who had fled there for safety. The chasm remained permanently open to the depth of six hundred feet. The earthquakes with which the valley of the Mississippi was visited in 1811 so often fissured the surface, that the inhabitants protected themselves by clinging to the trunks of trees, which they felled transversely to the direction of the fissures.

The first fracture which is produced by the upheaving force will open upwards, and scarcely reach down to the seat of the force. But there will be other parallel fractures, dependent upon the first, and opening downward. Thus, the primary fracture at a (Fig. 80) will be at once followed by the fracture b, opening toward the lava, which will be injected into it, and which, on cooling, will form a dike. Their formation is mostly concealed from observation, but not always. During the eruption of Ætna, in 1669, numerous fissures opened, one of which was six feet wide and twelve miles in length; and the light emitted from it indicated that it was filled with lava to near the surface. The process was as perfectly seen as from the nature of the case it could be.

2. The conversion of the lower sedimentary strata into metamorphic rocks has been effected by volcanic heat. The material of which dikes consist has been injected in a highly-heated state; and, by observing the effect which they have had upon the adjacent rocks, we may judge of the effect which subterranean heat must have upon the lower mechanical strata. Wherever the dikes are of considerable thickness, they have converted the adjacent shales into primary slate, the sandstones into quartz rock, and the dark and friable limestones into granular marble, and destroyed the organic impressions. In the southern extremity of Norway there is a district in which granite protrudes in a large mass through fossiliferous strata. These strata are invariably altered to a distance of from fifty to four hundred yards from the granite. The shales have become flinty, and resemble jasper; and near the granite they contain hornblende. The siliceous matter of the shales has become quartz rock, which sometimes contains hornblende and mica, and therefore constitutes a kind of granite. The limestone, which at points remote from the injected rock is an earthy, blue, coralline limestone, has become a white, granular marble, near the granite, and the corals are obliterated. The altered shales and limestones in many places contain garnets, ores of iron, lead, &c. The annexed (Fig. 81) is a plan of this granite and altered rock.

One of the most instructive examples of metamorphic action in this country is found in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. These mountains have, till recently, been thought to consist principally of granite; but it is now ascertained that this supposed granite is an altered rock of the silurian period. It is represented as "intersected by veins of felspathic granite; and the general mass is itself in many parts converted into a near approximation to a binary granite, composed of distinctly developed quartz and white felspar, with a few sparsely scattered specks of mica. In its weathered surfaces it wears a close resemblance to some fine-grained granites; but, upon inspecting a fresh fracture with a magnifier, we instantly perceive many rounded grains of quartzose sand, and the felspar is imperfectly formed, though the mica has more nearly reached the condition which it has in granite. In some of the coarse varieties of this white rock, small rounded pebbles of quartz are to be seen, giving unequivocal evidence, even to the naked eye, of its being an altered sandstone. We feel no hesitation in deciding it to have been a silico-argillaceous white sandstone, now almost granitized by extensive metamorphic action."

Similar illustrations, on a small scale, may be seen in every country where the strata have been cut through by intrusive dikes. Sir James Hall has shown the same by actual experiment. He exposed pulverized chalk to heat sufficient to melt it, and under sufficient pressure to prevent the escape of the carbonic acid. After cooling, the chalk was found to have taken the form of crystallized limestone. But instances enough have been given to show what changes should be looked for wherever the sedimentary rocks have been exposed to a high temperature.

The lower strata must have been exposed, for long periods of time, to such a temperature. We do not know at what depth below the surface of the earth the rocks become liquid; but above the line of actual fusion there must be a mass of rock not melted, yet scarcely retaining the solid form. For a great thickness, perhaps for several miles, it would be in a more or less yielding state. As there is not actual fusion, the stratification is not destroyed, but such a degree of mobility among the particles exists, that some degree of crystallization takes place, and the elastic forces below easily bend, throw into folds, compress, and in every way contort these strata. At the same time, any organic matters which they may contain are decomposed, and the impressions of them are obliterated. And such is the condition in which the metamorphic strata are actually found.

3. Denudation is, in a great measure, dependent on volcanic action. It results from the billowy motion peculiar to the earthquake. This is not simply a violent horizontal motion, but an equally violent vertical one. It is a series of waves,--a succession of alternate elevations and depressions of the solid crust. The height of these waves can only be judged of by their effects; but it is difficult to account for some of these effects, without supposing the waves to have been several yards in height, and their velocity, in the few instances in which the time has been accurately determined, was twenty miles a minute.

That such earthquake waves actually exist there can be no doubt. During the earthquake in Calabria, in 1783, the flagstones in many of the towns were lifted from their places and thrown down inverted, and trees bent so that their tops touched the ground. During the great earthquake in Chili, in 1835, the walls of houses, which were parallel to the line of oscillation, were thrown down, while those that were at right angles to it, though greatly fractured, were often left standing. Wherever careful observations have been made, during and after severe earthquakes, analogous facts have been noticed. Persons are generally affected with sea-sickness. The sea is violently agitated. It often retires to an unusual distance, and then returns upon the shore with most destructive waves. Incredible, therefore, as it may seem, that the solid crust of the earth should be thrown into such wave-like undulations, the fact is well established.

With a velocity of twenty miles an hour, the successive waves may be some miles apart, and yet be sufficient to account for all the phenomena. It is evident, therefore, that the curvature of the wave will be very slight, and yet enough to break into fragments all the rocks thus curved. During the earthquake in Chili, before referred to, "the ground was fissured, in many parts, in north and south lines. Some of the fissures near the cliffs were a yard wide. Many enormous masses had fallen on the beach. The effect of the vibrations on the hard primary slates was still more curious. The superficial parts of some narrow ridges were as completely shivered as if they had been blasted by gunpowder." Similar phenomena seem everywhere to be exhibited by earthquakes.

It may be presumed that almost all parts of the earth have, at different periods, been subject to these earthquake waves. Accordingly, we find that the crust of the earth is nowhere in an entire state, but is divided by irregular lines into comparatively small fragments. By this means, the deep fissures produced by fractures opening upwards would be filled with fragments of rock shattered from the uplifted edges. In this way the boulder masses were originally loosened from their parent beds, and exposed to the action of ice, or any other transporting agencies. In the same way the rocky bed of the ocean is, to a considerable depth, reduced to a disintegrated mass. In this condition it will be rapidly removed by marine currents, more or less broken, worn and comminuted, by the movement, and deposited elsewhere. The materials have thus been furnished for a very large proportion of the sedimentary rocks, and especially of those which are composed of distinct fragments of other rocks. By this means, also, wherever the rock formations come to the surface, they are so broken that limestone, sandstone or granite, suitable for architectural purposes, is seldom found, except at considerable depths. This fragmentary condition of the surface rock is such as exposes it to be acted upon readily by any powerfully abrading causes, or to be more rapidly disintegrated by atmospheric and aqueous causes.

4. We have already assumed that one principal division of rocks--the unstratified--is of igneous origin. We have the proof of actual observation, that lavas, and the accompanying tufas and grits, are volcanic products. The peculiarities of these products, in situation, structure, and form, and in the imbedded minerals, are so great, that whenever we find these peculiarities in the rocks of a country not now volcanic, we still regard these rocks as of volcanic origin. We thus have lavas, as well as stratified rocks, of different ages. There has probably been no time in the earth's history when they have not been forming.

The trappean rocks are also of igneous origin. It is evident, from their occurring in the form of dikes, that they have been in a melted state. As they rest upon rocks of a sedimentary origin, they must have been thrown up by volcanic forces. Yet they differ from ordinary lavas. They are not vesicular in their structure, are more crystalline, and there is in no case evidence that they have flowed from craters. If we regard them as the lavas of submarine volcanoes, we shall have conditions which will account for all their peculiarities. At a certain depth the pressure of the water would be sufficient to prevent the formation and escape of vapor, and therefore the lavas thus ejected would not be vesicular. As the rapid cooling of lavas depends, in a great degree, upon the escape of watery vapor, submarine lavas would cool slowly, in consequence of the pressure. The liquidity depending in part upon the retention of the heat, and in part upon the retention of the aqueous vapor, they would consequently remain in a liquid state much longer than the lavas of sub-aërial volcanoes. They would therefore take a more highly crystalline form. All the loose materials thrown out during the eruption would be removed by oceanic currents, and hence no cone would be built up around the orifice of eruption. We may therefore regard the trappean rocks as the lavas of submarine volcanoes. The present volcanoes of this kind are necessarily producing the same kind of rocks, though there will be no other proof that they exist, except the existence of the volcano, till the bed of the sea becomes dry land.

The granitic rocks are also the product of igneous causes. Granite is the most abundant of these crystalline rocks; and the others, such as crystalline limestone, are so intimately associated with granite that they must have had the same origin. Granite is everywhere found to send off dikes into the overlying rocks, and must therefore have been in a state of fusion; that is, it must have existed as lava beneath the surface. It is obvious that fluid lava always exists in great quantity beneath areas of energetic volcanic activity.

Portions of this lava must in succession take the solid form. Wherever the surface is elevated along a line of fracture, the lava which is accumulated beneath rises above the level of the general reservoir of lava, and will therefore part with its heat more rapidly. On cooling, it becomes the granitic nucleus of the mountain. We ought also to suppose that, by the extremely slow process of the transmission of heat to the surface, the crust of the earth is everywhere increasing in thickness; that is, the upper portion of the great lava mass is solidifying.

Sir James Hall has shown, by experiment, that earthy substances, reduced to a state of fusion, become more highly crystalline as they are allowed to cool more slowly, and are subjected to greater pressure. It is difficult to conceive of these conditions existing in a higher degree than they do in the cooling masses of lava below the stratified rocks. These lavas must therefore take the highly crystalline form which the granitic rocks are found to have.

All the igneous rocks have therefore existed as subterranean lavas. The volcanic rocks have become vitreous, the granitic are crystalline, and the trappean are intermediate in structure, coinciding with the circumstances of pressure and rate of cooling under which they have severally been formed.

5. The Elevation of Mountains is another result of volcanic action. The height of mountains depends, in part, upon general elevation. Yet there is a different action, upon which the existence of the mountain, as such, depends. Whenever igneous action becomes intense under any portion of the earth's surface, and the elastic force greater than the repressive, the solid crust will be broken and raised up, and along this line of fracture the lava will rise above its general level elsewhere. This lava, thus lifted out of the general mass, in time solidifies, and forms the nucleus of a mountain. At successive periods the elevating force is renewed, and adds somewhat to the mountain mass before supplied. In this way the mountain is ultimately formed.

So far as observations have been made, the elevation of mountains seems not to be gradual, but spasmodic; and yet the elevating force probably accumulates constantly and uniformly. The repressing force consists of the weight of the strata above, which may be regarded as constant, and their strength, which is variable. When the elevating force becomes greater than both the repressing forces, the crust is fractured. The strength of the strata then becomes nothing, and the repressing force is the weight alone. The elastic mass below at once expands, and the requisite space is furnished by the uplifting of the strata along the line of fracture. As the ridge of lava which fills this additional space cools, it recloses, in part, the original fracture, and the repressing force again consists of the two elements,--weight and strength. There will therefore be no further elevation till the elevating force is again superior to these two forces. Thus the elevating force, though it may accumulate at a uniform rate, will manifest itself only at considerable intervals.

As the accumulation of lava along the line of fracture is the cause of the upheaval, every mountain must have a central granitic axis. Sometimes this granitic mass is pushed up through the fissure, as in the case of Mont Blanc. At other times, the stratified rock, which formed the original surface, is carried up so as to form the surface rock nearly to the top. In either case, the strata are lifted along the line of fracture, and left in an inclined position. In this position the older rocks are always found, wherever there has been any considerable amount of igneous disturbance.

In some instances, the additional space required by the expansion of the igneous mass below is furnished, not by the uplifting of the strata, but by their compression into folds between two lines of upheaval. The igneous rock is elevated but little above the stratified through which it had burst; but the stratified rocks have taken the undulatory form, and the widening of the igneous mass along the lines of fracture has compressed the undulations, until the planes of the strata have become vertical. Fig. 82 will give an idea of the successive changes by which the vertical position of the strata has been produced.

The force by which mountains are elevated being the elasticity of the vapor diffused through the subjacent lava, it may happen, if the lava have a high degree of fluidity, that this vapor will collect in large masses, and rise as far as the lava is in a fluid state. The irregular flow of lava from craters during an eruption is undoubtedly due to the rapid ascent of such steam bubbles through the lava. Such an accumulation of vapor under a mountain mass, if it cannot escape, would support it as long as the temperature remained unchanged. But, upon a reduction of temperature, the mass which had been upheaved by it would be unsupported, and liable at any time to sink. Instances of subsidence on a comparatively small scale will admit of explanation in this way. Papandayang, one of the loftiest volcanic mountains of Java, sunk down four thousand feet in the year 1772. The area engulfed was sixteen miles long and six broad. The crater of Kilauea, in one of the Sandwich Islands, was evidently formed in this way. It is situated on the side of a mountain, and consists of a chasm eight miles in circumference and a thousand feet in depth. Liquid lava can always be seen boiling in the small craters at the bottom; and at times it rises so as to overflow them, and fill the chasm to within four hundred feet of the top, when lateral subterranean passages are opened, by which it is discharged. The same explanation--a depression of the central portion--may be given of the formation of the large craters in the Canary and Grecian islands. It is also probable that Lake Avernus and others, in Italy, and some in Germany, have had a similar origin.

The subsidence of Papandayang is of importance as a historical fact; and it is not at all unreasonable to suppose that larger chasms of great depth were also sudden subsidences of a similar character. Lake Superior has a depth considerably greater than the elevation of its surface above the level of the sea. The bottom of the Dead Sea is two thousand six hundred feet below the surface of the Mediterranean. And at one place in the Atlantic Ocean a sounding was attempted with more than six miles of line, without reaching bottom. These sunken areas, however, though of great extent, occupy only an insignificant portion of the entire surface of the earth.

6. The Elevation of Continents.--The causes of change of level which have been given will not explain those slow vertical movements which are now taking place in Greenland and the north of Europe, or those by which the present continents have been elevated and the bed of the sea depressed. Any cause which will account for these movements must be one operating for long periods, under large areas, and with great uniformity.

The cause which fulfils all these conditions most satisfactorily is a variation of temperature in the mass of rock underlying the portion of the surface whose level is changing. It has before been shown that the temperature increases as we descend below the surface; but there is also reason to suppose that it undergoes great variations. The volcanic grits interstratified with the silurian rocks of England show that at the silurian period volcanic fires were active below that portion of the surface. When the early fossiliferous rocks of this country were deposited, the Alleghany Mountains had not been elevated; but before the tertiary period they had taken nearly their present form. Some portion of the intermediate period was therefore one of volcanic upheaval. The trappean rocks are also evidence of intense volcanic action existing here. France, during the tertiary period, was a highly volcanic country; but all volcanic activity has now subsided. The Andes have been mostly elevated since the tertiary period, and are still rising. It is evident, then, that at different periods volcanic heat may vary from its highest to its least degree of activity, below any portion of the earth's surface.

This variation of temperature must be followed by variation of volume of the earth's crust; that is, it must produce expansion or contraction. Experiments have been made, under the direction of the United States government, to determine the expansion of the several kinds of rock used in our public works. It was found that granite expands nearly one two hundred thousandth of its length for every degree of increased temperature, limestone somewhat more than that, and sandstone about twice as much. Taking the expansion of the granite as the basis of calculation, and supposing the crust for a hundred miles in thickness to be undergoing change of temperature, there would be a resulting difference of level exceeding two and a half feet for each degree of change in temperature, or more than two thousand five hundred feet for a change of one thousand degrees.

This calculation is made upon the supposition that the law of expansion is the same for all temperatures, and that no new conditions are introduced at high temperatures by the presence of aqueous particles. We know, however, that solids expand more rapidly at high temperatures than at low, and the elasticity of aqueous vapor at high temperatures must increase the rate of expansion of the rock through which it is diffused. Although we are not able to introduce, numerically, the effect of these two circumstances, yet it is obvious that they must be considerable.

The mean elevation of land above the level of the sea is about nine hundred feet, the mountain masses above that level not being included; and the estimated mean depth of the ocean, not including its chasms, does not exceed two thousand six hundred feet. The total elevation of the continental masses, for which it is necessary to account, does not therefore exceed three thousand five hundred feet. This amount of vertical movement may evidently be produced by the expansion and contraction resulting from changes of temperature.

These changes of level must, however, be very gradual. Any diminution of temperature must result from the transfer of heat to the surface; and the conducting power of rocks is very imperfect. The lava in a crater is often so cooled on the surface that it can be walked on, while but a few feet below it is still liquid. Lava currents continue in gradual motion long after the surface is nearly cold. This was the case with one of the currents from Ætna for more than nine months after its eruption, and with another for ten years. Humboldt visited Jorullo forty years after it was thrown up, when the lava around the mountain was still in a heated state, the temperature in the fissures being on the decrease from year to year; but twenty years after its ejection the heat was still sufficient to light a cigar at the depth of a few inches. If so long a period is insufficient to solidify a comparatively small quantity of melted rock when the circumstances for cooling are most favorable, we may well suppose that centuries would be required to abstract sufficient heat from the earth's crust to produce any material change in the areas of continents.

If this account of the elevation and subsidence of continents is correct, it would seem that they ought to be constantly undergoing change of level. And their apparent stability may be regarded as an objection to it. If in any place there is absolutely no vertical movement, then those conditions must exist in which, for the time being, there is no change of temperature.

But it is doubtful whether there ever is absolute stability of any portion of the surface for long periods of time. Of the minor vertical movements of the interior of continents, there can, from the nature of the case, be no evidence whatever. Changes of level, where they are known to be taking place, are so slow, that they are hardly perceptible in the period of a human life. Such changes had been going on for centuries in Sweden before they were suspected. As accurate observations have increased in number, and historical records become available, it is becoming known that a very large amount of the seaboard is undergoing change of level. It becomes probable, then, that these extremely slow changes of level are constantly and everywhere taking place.

That portion of the crust of the earth constituting the present continents, being further removed from the centre, would part with its heat more rapidly, and receive heat from the central mass more slowly, than that portion which at present constitutes the bed of the sea. The continents are therefore in a situation to undergo contraction and depression, and the bed of the sea is most favorably situated for rising. If the distribution of water through the mass has any influence in promoting its expansion, then the bed of the sea would receive this supply most abundantly, and the continents the least so. We see, then, in nature, those provisions for an alteration of level, which, from the character of the several rock formations, we know to have taken place. When any portion of the earth's surface is covered with the sea, the conditions exist which will at length elevate it. When it becomes dry land, the conditions exist which will in time depress it below the level of the ocean. Hence, those impressions in regard to the land, as stable beyond the possibility of change, we ought to abandon; and those vertical movements, which, when proved, we are accustomed to regard as extraordinary, we shall, at length, consider as only particular instances of one of the most general laws of nature.

7. Variations of Climate.--The only sources of heat by which climate can be affected are the sun and the heated interior of the earth.

If the former melted condition of the entire mass of the earth be assumed, the temperature of the surface must have been increased, by conduction of heat from within, for long periods after the superficial stratum had become solid. It is, however, susceptible of proof, that the present climates are not sensibly affected by interior heat, though at a little more than a mile below the surface the temperature is equal to that of boiling water. At any time, therefore, after the waters had become condensed, collected into oceans, and become sufficiently cool to support the animal life of which the remains are now found, it is not probable that the climate was, to any considerable extent, influenced by the heat conducted from the interior.

Still, there have been great changes of climate since those early organic forms existed; and, since we have no ground for supposing that the temperature of the sun's rays has suffered any reduction, we have to inquire whether the means of retaining the heat from the sun could at any time have been different. The relative position of land and water depends, as we have seen, upon igneous causes, and has been very different at different times. We shall find that climate must have been greatly modified by these changes; for the land radiates and absorbs heat freely, and water possesses this power in a very low degree.

Let us suppose the zone comprised between the tropics to be occupied by land, and the portions without these limits to be covered with water. Under these conditions, the land, having a nearly vertical sun the whole time, would accumulate heat to a degree scarcely compatible with the existence of animal life. This is sufficiently proved by the oppressive tropical climates of the present time, influenced as they are by polar lands and contiguous seas.

Under the same conditions, the sea would be heated by contact with the land, and the heat would be distributed by marine currents to the polar regions. But the water thus distributed would not part with its heat, because it has but little radiating power, and nowhere comes in contact with polar land. It follows, then, that both land and water would be subjected to a very high temperature.

But, if we suppose the land confined to the polar regions, and the sea to the equatorial, the opposite results would follow. The equatorial sea would absorb but a small proportion of the solar heat which would be thrown upon it. The land would receive the sun's rays too obliquely to receive much elevation of temperature, as the present polar climates show. Hence, the temperature of the earth would differ but little from that of the planetary spaces, which is fifty-eight degrees below zero, a temperature too low to allow of any considerable development of organic life.

These are the conclusions to which we are led by considering the different powers of land and water to absorb and radiate heat, and we shall find that the existing climates are in accordance with these conclusions. America has a lower temperature than Europe in the same latitudes. It has also a smaller proportion of land in the equatorial regions, and a greater proportion in the north polar regions. The eastern continent is colder in Asia than in Europe in the same latitudes. It has also less equatorial and more polar land. The southern is colder than the northern hemisphere at equal distances from the equator. There is also less land near the equator on the south side, and probably as much land around the south as the north pole.

Hence, we see that there may have been such a relation of land and water as to account for all the variations of temperature which are known to have existed. We cannot say that such actually has been the case. We can tell, with some degree of accuracy, what portions of the present continents were land at the several geological periods; but three-fourths of the surface of the earth is covered with water, and of the condition of this portion during those periods we have no means even of conjecturing. We can only say, that, by the operation of known causes, the relative position of land and water may have been such as to produce the climates known to have existed at former periods of the history of the earth.

INDEX.

Page A.

Abundance of vegetable products of the coal period, 59 Accumulation of vegetable matter, 117 Actinolite, 15 Action of internal heat, 128 Action of waves, 107 in forming harbors, 108 Advantages of geological changes, 91 Ætna, 26, 73 Agate, 14 Age of rocks, doubtful-- from change of lithological character, 61 from distance, 61 from disturbance, 61 Alternation of coarse and fine material, 115 Aluminium, 12 Amethyst, 14 Amygdaloidal structure, 17 Ancient volcanic rocks, 29 Andes, granite veins in, 25 Angle of inclination, 71 Anoplotherium, 55 Anticlinal axis, 71 Aqueous causes, 103 Aqueo-glacial action, 120 Argillaceous schist, 20, 31 Arrangement of materials in the crust of the earth, 21 Artesian wells, 92 Asbestos, 15 Atmospheric causes, 95 Atolls, 81 Augite, 15 Auvergne, volcanic district of, 28

Basalt, 18 Bed of the sea-- sunken areas in the, 142 why elevated, 145 Belemnites, 52 Breccia, 19 Brine springs-- in Silurian rocks, 35 in the carboniferous formation, 43 in the new red sandstone, 47

Calamite, 47 Calcium, 13 Cambrian system, 32 Carbon, 11 Carbonate of lime, 15 Carbonate of magnesia, 19 Carbonic acid a cause of disintegration of rocks, 95 Carboniferous formation, 39 essential to national wealth, 43 extent of, 47 a prospective arrangement, 43 faults in, 41 not always disturbed by faults, 42 Carboniferous limestone, 39 sometimes becomes a coal-bearing rock, 42 fossils of the, 40 Carnelian, 14 Cause of internal heat, 128 Cause of stratification, 114 Caverns, 69 Cephalaspis, 39 Cephalopoda, 36 in oölite, 50 Chalcedony, 14 Chalk, 52 Changes of climate, 88 how produced, 146 Changes in the crust of the earth, 67 of temperature a disintegrating agent, 96 at the surface, 85 Chemical action, 97 in solids, 99 in crystallization, 97 Chlorine, 12 Chlorite, 15 Chlorite slate, 32 Classification of rocks, 21 Clay, 19 Clay slate, 20 Cleavage structure, 68, 98 Coal, 16 varieties of, 42 mode of quarrying, 42 origin of, 116 conversion of vegetable matter into, 117 now forming, 118 Coal measures, 131 fossils of the, 44 Coal plants, tropical character of, 88 Coal and iron associated, 43 Clouded marble, 33 Columnar structure, 18, 99 Compact limestone, 19 Concretionary formations, 99 Conglomerate, 19 of old red sandstone, 38 Connecticut valley-- one of denudation, 87 trap of, 30 Continents-- mean elevation of, 144 total elevation of, 144 elevated gradually, 144 why depressed, 145 Contorted strata, 72 Coral formation, 81, 102 extent of, 102 Coral reefs-- fringing, 81 barrier, 81 Coral rag, 49 Corals in silurian rocks, 35 Copper mines of Lake Superior, 47 Creation, a progressive work, 62 Cretaceous formation, 52

Cretaceous formation, fossils of, 52 geographical range of, 53 Crinoidea in Silurian rocks, 36 Crust of the earth, 16 expansion and contraction of, 143

Delta deposits, 114 Denudation of igneous rocks, 85 Denudation of sedimentary rocks, 85 Denudation produced by earthquake waves, 136 Deposition of sediment, 113 Diluvium, 20 Dike, 69, 133 Divisional planes, 68, 98 Dolomite, 13, 19 Drift, 20 extent of, 53 connected with striated surface of the rocks, 54 connected with subsidence, 54, 126

Earth in a state of change, 97 Earthquakes, 130 wave-like motion of, 136 Earthquake waves, rocks shivered by, 137 Effect of atmospheric agencies, 95 Electrical discharges, effect of, 96 Elementary substances, 11 Elevation and subsidence, 73 Elevation and subsidence several times repeated, 82 Elevation of mountains, 73 cause of, 139 spasmodic, 140 gradual, 75 Elevation of different mountains at different times, 75 Elevation of continents, 76 cause of, 142 Elevation of North America, 76 Elevation of the coast of Maine, 76 Elevation of Europe, 77 Elevation of South America, 78 Encrinites, 36, 50

Fault, 41, 69 Felspar, 14 Filling up of lakes, 76 Fingal's cave, 30 Fissile structure, origin of, 68 Flint, 14 in chalk, 52, 99 Fluorine, 12 Folded axes, 61, 72 Formation of soils, 87 Fossils-- definition of, 57 how preserved, 57 mineralization of, 58 use of, 60 order in which animals appeared, shown by, 58 animal and vegetable, created together, 59 as a record of climate, 88, 101 Fossiliferous rocks, 32 classification of, 32 Fractures, 42, 68, 130 opening downward, 133

Garnet, 16 Geological causes, how far uniform, 94 Geological causes, slow operation of, 95 Geological investigations aided by displacement of strata, 92 Geological periods, prolonged, 63 shown by amount of strata, 63 shown by duration of species, 64 shown by amount of organic matter, 64 shown by microscopic accumulations, 65 Geology and Revelation, 65 Giant's Causeway, 30 Glacial period, 90 Glacial theory, 124 Glaciers-- how formed, 120 cause of motion, 121 when they decrease, 122 earthy matter on them, 122 lateral moraines, 123 surfaces grooved by, 123 terminal moraines, 123 Gneiss, 18, 30 Gorge, 69 Graham Island, 131 Granite, 16 varieties of, 16 thickness of, 23 structure of, 23 formation of, 67 igneous origin of, 138 Granite veins, 24 in granite, 24 Granite of different ages, 25 Granitic axes of mountains, 24, 140 Greensand, 19, 52 Greenstone, 18, 30 Grooved surfaces of rock, 54, 87, 126 Gypsum, 15 in new red sandstone, 47 beds, how produced, 99

Hall, Sir James, experiments, 135, 139 Heterocercal tails of fishes, 48 Homocercal tails, 48 Hornblende, 14 Hornblende slate, 20, 32 Hydrogen, 11 Hypersthene, 15 Hypersthene rock, 17, 25

Icebergs-- how formed, 124 earthy materials in, 125 motion of, 125 size and number of, 125 effect in distributing drift, 126 grooving the surface, 126 Iceland spar, 19 Iceland, volcanic eruption in, 26 Ichthyosaurus, 50 Igneous causes, 127 Iguanodon, 51 Inclined position of strata produced by upheaval, 70, 140 Increase of temperature below the surface, 127 Iron, 12

Jasper, 14 Jorullo, 131

Kilauea, 26, 142

Lakes, filling up of, 76, 113 Lava, 17, 25, 137 varieties of, 25 tertiary, 27 elastic vapors contained in, 130, 132 great quantity of modern, 26 Lead-bearing strata, 35, 40 Lepidodendron, 46 Lias, 19, 49 Limestone, 15, 19 as a primary rock, 25 metalliferous, 40 Local changes of climate, 90

Magnesian limestone, 19, 47 Magnesium, 13 Mammoth, 56 Man-- recently created, 59 as an agent in producing geological changes, 101 impressions of the feet of, 59 skeleton of from Guadaloupe, 59 Manganese, 12 Marine currents, 108 Marine currents, cause of, 109 abrading power of, 111 Marl, 19 Mastodon, 55 Megatherium, 55 Metamorphic changes, 67 Metamorphic rocks, 30 amount of, 67 origin of, 134 order of superposition, 31 upper limit variable, 13 localities of, 32 Metallic ores, 92 Mica, 14 slate, 18, 31 Millstone grit, 40 fossils of, 41 becomes coal measures, 42 Mineral-- definition of, 13 Mineral veins, 69 formation of, 100 Modern formation, 57 why but little known, 57 fossils, 57 Moisture of the atmosphere a disintegrating agent, 96 Monte Nuovo, 26 Mount Loa, eruption of, 26

Neocomian system, 52 New red sandstone, 47 fossils of, 48 ores of, 47 geographical range of, 49 Niagara Falls, how preserved, 106 Nitrogen, 11 Nummulite rock, 54

Oceanic mountains, 75 Ocean level, nearly permanent, 74 Old red sandstone, 38 fossils of, 39 extent of, 39 Oölite, 19 Oölitic structure, 49 Oölite system, 49 calcareous, 49 fossils of, 50 localities of, 51 Opal, 14 Organic causes, 101 Orthoceras, 36, 40 Outcrop, 71 Oxide of iron, 16 Oxygen, 11

Paleotherium, 55 Papandayang, 95, 142 Permian system, 47 Plesiosaurus, 51 Porphyritic structure, 17 Potassium, 12 Primary limestone, 19 Pterodactyle, 51 Pumice-stone, 17 Pyroxene, 15

Quartz, 14 rock, 32

Raindrops, impressions of, 48 Raised beaches, 76 Ravine, 69 Recent elevation in Europe, 79 Recent formation, 57 Ripple marks, 48 Rivers-- beds of, raised, 113 continued into the sea, 112 abrading action of, 105 abrading action of promoted by foreign substances, 106 Rock crystal, 14 Rock salt, 16, 118 Rocks, denned, 16 Rose quartz, 14

Saccharine limestone, 19, 32 Saliferous system, 47 Saline properties of the ocean, how obtained, 104 Salt beds-- where found, 118 how formed, 119 Sandstone, 19 Schorl, 16 Scoriæ, 17, 133 Sediment-- amount of in rivers, 107 deposition of, 113 sorted by rivers, 112 Selenite, 16 Serpentine, 15 a primary rock, 25 Shale, 20 Siberia, remains of elephants in, 89 Sigillaria, 45 Silicium, 12 Sinking of wharves, towns, &c., 79

Silurian system, 34 tabular arrangement of, 34 divisions of, 35 fossils of, 36 geographical range, 38 Slaty structure-- in the gold washings of Chili, 98 produced by electric currents, 98 Slope of mountains, 73 Soapstone, 15 Sodium, 13 Solidification of rocks, 68, 119 Soluble materials of rocks, 103 Solution of mineral substances-- promoted by heat, 104 promoted by an alkali, 104 promoted by carbonic acid, 105 Sources of the sedimentary materials, 103 Sources of the sediment of rivers, 97 Species-- disappearance of, 62 causes of the disappearance of, 62 Springs, 92 Stability of continents only apparent, 145 Statuary marble, 19 Stigmaria, 44 Strata-- horizontal, 70, 115 permeable and impermeable, 92 irregular, how produced, 115 Striated surfaces, 87 Submerged forests, 79 Subsidence of land, 79, 145 Subsidence of land in Greenland, 82 Subsidence and elevation in the Pacific, 80 Sulphate of lime, 15 Sulphur, 12 Sun-cracks, 48 Sunken areas, 142 Syenite, 17 Synclinal axes, 72

Taconic system, 32 Talc, 15 Talcose slate, 20, 32 Temperature at great depths, 127 Temple of Jupiter Serapis, 83 Tertiary system, 53 age, how determined, 53 fossils, 54 divisions of, 53 geographical range, 56 Tilestones of the old red sandstone, 38 Trachyte, 18 Tracks in new red sandstone, 49 Transportation of sediment, 111 Trappean rocks, 17 localities of, 29 Tremolite, 15 Trias, 47 Trilobite, 37, 40

Valley, 69 of elevation, 71, 75 of subsidence, 72

Valley of denudation, 87 Vein of segregation, 69 Verd-antique marble, 15 Volcanic rocks, 17, 25 of different ages, 26 in what states ejected, 25 Volcanic mountains, dimensions, 26 Volcanic activity-- regions of, 129 water essential to, 130 Volcanic cones-- formation of, 131 lateral, 132 Volcanic cinders, scoriæ, glass, 132 Volcanic action, effects of, 133 Volcanic origin-- of trappean rocks, 138 of granitic rocks, 138 Volcanoes-- number, 26 linear arrangement of, 131 near the sea, 129 new, 131 of the tertiary period, long active, 28

Watt on fusion of basalt, 100 Waves, action of, 107 Wealden, 49 Wind a geological agent, 96

Zechstein, 47

QUESTIONS

ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY

QUESTIONS.