CHAPTER XXI. The Training, Opportunities, and Ethics of the Economic Geologist

THE TRAINING, OPPORTUNITIES, AND ETHICS OF THE ECONOMIC GEOLOGIST

Economic geology is now an established and well-recognized profession, but there is yet nothing approaching a standardized course of study leading to a degree in economic geology. There are as many different kinds of training as there are institutions in which geology is taught. Within an institution, also, it is seldom that any two persons take exactly the same groups of geologic studies. This situation allows wide latitude of training to meet ever changing requirements, but in other respects it is not so desirable.

PURE VERSUS APPLIED SCIENCE

In no institution are all the applied branches of geology taught. There is constant pressure for the introduction of more applied courses; this seems to be the tendency of the times. The economic geologist, fresh from vivid experiences in his special field, is often insistent that a new course be introduced to cover his particular specialty. Any attempt, however, to put into a college course a considerable fraction of the applied phases of geology would mean the crowding out of more essential basic studies. To yield wholly to such pressure would in fact soon develop an impossible situation; for, on the basis of time alone, it would be quite impossible to give courses on all of the applied subjects in a training period of reasonable length.

On the other hand, the failure to introduce a fair proportion of applied geology, on the ground that the function of the college is to teach pure science and that in some way economic applications are non-scientific, seems to the writer an equally objectionable procedure,--because it does not take into account the unavoidable human relations of the science, which vivify and give point and direction to scientific work. The development of science in economic directions does not necessarily mean incursion into less scientific or non-scientific fields. It is true that many of the economic applications of geology are so new and so constantly changing that they are not yet fully organized on a scientific basis; but this fact is merely an indication of the lag of science, and not of the absence of possibilities of developing science in such directions. There is today a considerable tendency among geologists of an academic type, whose lives have been spent in purely scientific investigation and teaching, to assume that anything different from the field of their activities is in some manner non-scientific, and therefore less worthy. Many economic geologists have been made to feel this criticism, even though seldom expressed openly. For the good of geologic science, this tendency seems to the writer extremely unfortunate. The young man entering the field of economic geology should be made to understand that his is the highest scientific opportunity; and that if parts of his field are not yet fully organized, the greater is his own opportunity to participate in the constructive work to be done.

Under war requirements many geologists were called upon to extend their efforts to bordering fields of endeavor. In some quarters these activities were regarded as non-scientific, and as subtracting from efficiency in purely geological work,--and yet out of this combined effort came a wider comprehension of new scientific fields, between the established sciences and between sciences and human needs. It is inevitable that in the future these fields, now imperfectly charted, will be occupied and developed, perhaps not by the men who are already well established in their particular fields of endeavor, but by coming scientists. In this light, it was a privilege for geologists to participate in the discovery and charting activities of the war.

Still another attempt to discriminate between scientific and non-scientific phases of geologic effort has been the assumption by certain scientific organizations with reference to standards of admission,--that work done for practical purposes may be regarded as scientific only if it leads to advancement of the science through the publication of the results. There is by no means any general agreement as to the validity of this distinction. On this basis, some of the most effective scientific work which is translated directly into use for the benefit of civilization is ruled out as science, because it is expressed on a typewritten rather than on a printed page.

While applied phases of the geologist's work may be truly scientific in the broader sense, it is undoubtedly easy in this field to drift into empirical methods, and to emphasize facility and skill at the expense of original scientific thought. The practice of geology then becomes an art rather than a science. This remark is pertinent also to much of non-applied geologic work in recent years. A considerable proportion of this empirical facility is desirable and necessary in the routine collection of data and in their description; but where, as is often the case, the geologist's absorption in such work minimizes the use of his constructive faculties, it does not aid greatly in the advancement of science.

Geology is by no means the only science in which there has been controversy as to the relative merits of the so-called pure and applied phases; but as one of the youngest sciences, which heretofore has been pursued mainly from the standpoint of "pure science," it is now, perhaps more than any other science, in the transition stage to a wider viewpoint. In the past there was doubt about the extension of chemistry toward the fields of physics and engineering, and of physics toward the fields of chemistry and engineering, and of both physics and chemistry toward purely economic applications; but out of these fields have grown the great sciences of physical chemistry, chemical engineering, and others,--and few would be rash enough to attempt to draw a line between the pure and applied science, or between the scientific and non-scientific phases of this work. This general tendency means a broadening of science and not its deterioration.

COURSE OF STUDY SUGGESTED

There are almost as many opinions on desirable training for economic geology as there are geologists, and the writer's view cannot be taken as representing any widely accepted standard. On the basis of his own experience, however, both in teaching and in field practice, he would lay emphasis on the fundamental branches both of geology and of the allied sciences,--general geology, stratigraphy, paleontology, physiography, sedimentation, mineralogy, petrology, structural and metamorphic geology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and biology. After these are covered, as much attention should be given to economic applications as time permits. The time allowance for training, at a maximum, is not sufficient to cover both pure and applied science. Subsequent experience will supply the deficiencies in applied knowledge, but will not make up for lack of study of basic principles.

It is safe advice to a student wishing to prepare for economic geology that there is no royal road to success; that his best chance lies in the effort to make himself a scientist, even though he cover only a narrow field; that if he is successful in this, opportunities for economic applications will almost inevitably follow. To devote attention from the start merely to practical and commercial features, rather than to scientific principles, brings the student at once into competition with mining engineers, business men, accountants, and others, who are often able to handle the purely empirical features of an economic or practical kind better than the geologist. In the long run the economic geologist succeeds because he knows the fundamentals of his science, and not because he has mere facility in the empirical economic phases of his work. Of course there are exceptions to this statement,--there are men with a highly developed business sense who are successful in spite of inadequate scientific training, but such success should be regarded as a business and not a professional success.

Geology is sometimes described as the application of other sciences to the earth. This statement might be made even broader, and geology described as the application of all knowledge to the earth. In the writer's experience, the best results on the whole have been obtained from students who, before entering geology, have had a broad general education or have followed intensively some other line of study. Whether this study has been the ancient languages, law, engineering, economics, or other sciences, the results have usually been good if the early training has been sound. To start in geology without some such background, and without the resulting power of a well-trained mind, is to start with a handicap in the long race to the highest professional success. It follows, then, that intensive study of geology should in most cases not begin until late in the undergraduate course, and preferably not until the graduate years. Two or three years of graduate work may then suffice to launch the geologist on his career, but so great is the field, and so rapid the growth of knowledge within it, that there is no termination to his study. It is not enough to settle back comfortably on empirical practice based solely on previously acquired knowledge. Each problem develops new scientific aspects. It is this ever renewing interest which is one of the great charms of the science.

However, whether the student has a general training in geology, a specialized knowledge of certain branches, or takes it up incidentally in connection with engineering and other sciences, he will find opportunities for economic applications. The frequent success of the mining engineer in the geological phases of his work is an indication that even a comparatively small amount of geological knowledge is useful.

The writer is inclined to emphasize also the desirability of what might be called the quantitative approach to the subject,--that is, of training in mathematics and laboratory practice, which gives the student facility in treating geologic problems concretely and in quantitative terms. Geology is passing from the descriptive and qualitative stages to a more precise basis. For this reason the combination of geology with engineering often proves a desirable one. It is not uncommon for the student trained solely in the humanities and other non-quantitative subjects to have difficulty in acquiring habits of mind which lead to sufficient precision in the application of his science. He may have a good grasp of general principles and be able to express himself well, but he is handicapped in securing definite results. This does not necessarily mean that a large amount of time should be given to study of quantitative methods; exact habit of mind is more important in the early stages than expert facility with methods.

The teacher of economic geology finds his data so voluminous that it is difficult to present all the essential facts and yet leave sufficient time for discussion of general principles or for drill in their constructive application. It is difficult to lay down any rule as a guide to the proper division of effort; but from the writer's point of view, it is a mistake to attempt to crowd into a course too many facts. At best they cannot all be given; and in the attempt to do so, the student is brought into a passive and receptive attitude, requiring maximum use of his memory and minimum use of his reasoning power. Presentation of a few fundamental facts, combined with vigorous discussion tending to develop the student's ability to use these facts, and particularly tending to develop a constructive habit of investigation, seems to be the most profitable use of time during the course of training. The acquirement of facts and details will come fast enough in actual practice.

The variety, amount, and complexity of the data available in geology tend in themselves toward generalizations in teaching--toward the deductive rather than the inductive method. A certain amount of generalization is desirable, but its over-emphasis develops bad habits of mind on the part of the student, and requires radical readjustment of his ideas in subsequent field investigations. To retain a proper emphasis on inductive methods, it is necessary to limit the amount of data presented. Good results have been obtained by using the "case system," now common in the teaching of law--that is, by starting with a specific fact or situation as a basis for developing principles.

Another advantage in the restriction of data is the opportunity thus afforded for spending more time in the study of original reports rather than of the short textbook summaries. The student thus learns where the best primary sources of information are, how to find them, and how to extract essentials from them.

FIELD WORK

Field work is an essential part of any course of geologic training. Not only should it be taken at every opportunity during the regular school year, but no summer should be allowed to pass without geologic practice in the field. Opportunities for such work are offered in the summer field courses given by various institutions. In recent years it has usually been possible, also, for the student with elementary training to take part in summer geological survey work for state, national, or private organizations. In fact, after two or three years of geologic training, it is comparatively easy for the student to earn at such intervals during the year a fair fraction of his year's expenses.

The ideal arrangement, from the writer's viewpoint, would be about an equal division of time between indoor and outdoor study. The alternation from one to the other supplies a much needed corrective to clear thinking. It is impossible to bring all the subject materials into the classroom and laboratory; such study must inevitably be more or less deductive and generalized. If the student at frequent intervals is not able to acquire and renew a mental picture of field conditions, there is likely to be a faulty perspective even in regard to principles, and a considerable gap between the theoretical and applied phases of his knowledge. It may be possible in the classroom, for instance, to discuss faults in great detail with the aid of maps, diagrams, and pictures; and yet it is extremely difficult to get a real three-dimensional conception of the problems without actually standing on the ground.

SPECIALIZATION IN STUDIES

With the increasing size and efficiency of human operations has come an inevitable tendency to specialization. Where, in the past, the necessary geologic work might be passably done by the mining engineer, the local superintendent or operator, it is now being intrusted to specialists. Even within the more strictly engineering phases of the mining engineer's work, there is the same tendency toward specialization; his work is being divided up among the electrical engineers, the mechanical engineers, the hydraulic engineers, and others. The opportunities for geologic work, therefore, are distinctly in the direction of specialization. The student in determining the field he shall enter needs to take this fact into account and to prepare accordingly, but not at the sacrifice of the broad basal training. Only a small part of the specialization can be accomplished in college. The remainder will come with experience.

In the future there is likely to be increasing specialization among the different educational institutions in the phases of applied geology which are taught. Geographic location has a good deal to do with this tendency. Where an institution is located near a coal or oil field, it is likely, as a matter of course, to specialize to some extent in the application of geology to these resources. Or, the specialization may arise from the fact that the teachers have had special training in certain phases of applied geology, and such training naturally and properly determines the emphasis to be placed. Courses in engineering geology are finding a natural development in the leading engineering colleges.

In view of the fact that it is impossible for any one institution to cover all phases of applied geology, because of lack of time, and in view of the fact that even if this were attempted the results would be very unequal, because of the varied experience of teachers or because of geographic location, it would seem wise definitely to recognize these limitations and for each institution to play up the work it can do best. With freedom of migration among universities, a student by moving from place to place can thus secure any combination of specialized courses which best fits his requirements.

A DEGREE OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

There has been some agitation in recent years for standardization of courses in economic geology, and for the granting of a special degree in evidence of the completion of such a course. The principal argument for this procedure is that it would tend to insure a better average of training and would draw a line between worthy geologists and a host of ill-trained pseudo-geologists. The earth is so accessible, and its use so varied, that geology is handicapped perhaps more than any other science by persons who really have no valid claim to a scientific title.

The writer doubts whether a special degree in economic geology would go far toward improving this situation. Even if the courses were the same in different institutions, the manner of treatment and the ability of the teachers would be so varied that in the future, as in the past, anyone inquiring into the real standing of a geologist would be likely to consider his individual training rather than the degree attached to his name. There would be no guarantee that institutions not qualified to give the degree might not do so. However, the principal objection in the writer's mind to a degree of economic geology is the assumption that it is possible for anybody, in the present stage of knowledge, to formulate a standardized course adequate or best to meet the varied requirements. Considering the breadth and the variety of the field, any such attempt at standardization would have to be highly arbitrary. Once established, it would be a hindrance to the natural development of new courses to meet the ever changing requirements. When, if ever, the science of economic geology becomes fully organized, a standardized course may be possible. In the present stage of the science, more elasticity is required than seems to be possible in any of the courses proposed.

One of the purposes of the introduction of a degree of economic geology, to separate the sheep from the goats, may be accomplished in another way,--namely, by the establishment and maintenance of high standards of admission and high aims on the part of the various professional societies having to do with geology and mining. If this is done, membership in such societies may be regarded as evidence of sound training and achievement. To some extent this procedure may relieve the pressure on universities for uniformity of courses and degrees, leaving them free to develop in such manner as seems best. Scientific organizations, overlooking the entire field, are in a position to take into account the greatest variety of factors of training and experience in selecting their members. Failure of any university course to make men eligible for such recognition will obviously react on the course in a desirable way.

THE OPPORTUNITIES OF THE ECONOMIC GEOLOGIST

It has been the aim in this book to present a general view of the fields of activity of the economic geologist; and the list of chapter headings in itself summarizes the variety of his opportunities. The rapidly increasing use of earth materials promises far greater calls for geologic aid in the future than in the past. The profession is in its infancy.

Opportunities for employment are ordinarily found in three main directions--in educational institutions, in the federal and state geological surveys, and in private organizations. Connection with the United States Geological Survey excludes participation in private work, and in recent years even in teaching. In the state surveys there is ordinarily more latitude in this regard. In the educational institutions, it is rather the common procedure for the instructor to secure his field practice and experience through private agencies, or through part time connection with state surveys,--an arrangement with advantages to all concerned. The educational institution secures the benefit of the field experience which it cannot afford to provide, and is enabled to hold geologists at salaries far below their earning capacity. The geologist gains by the opportunity to alternate between office and field study, and to correct his perspective by the constant checking of theory with field conditions. The combination tends to keep the clearly scientific and the applied phases in a proper relative proportion; it minimizes the danger of drifting into purely empirical field methods on the one hand, and of losing touch with actualities on the other. Geologists devoting their attention solely to field work often complain that they do not have time to digest and correlate their results, nor to keep up with what others are doing. On the other hand, geologists without current field practice are likely to develop too strongly along subjective, deductive, and theoretical lines. The teacher gains in freshness and force in the presentation of his subject in the classroom, and the very effort necessary for presentation requires better analysis and coordination of his field observations. The private or state organization gains in this combination by drawing on the general and varied knowledge which has necessarily been accumulated for teaching and investigative purposes.

Temperament and circumstances will determine in which of these directions the student will turn. However, in view of the present natural tendency to be attracted by the large financial rewards in the commercial field, it may not be out of place to emphasize the fact that these rewards are perhaps more likely to be gained through perfected training and experience in state and national surveys and in educational institutions, than through early concentration in the commercial field. In any case, the financial side will take care of itself when sufficient knowledge and proficiency have been attained in any branch of the science.

The world is the geologist's laboratory; it is the only limit to his activities. The frontiers are near at hand, both physically and intellectually. There are few fields so attractive from the scientific standpoint. There are few in which the successful prosecution of the science can be of so much direct benefit to civilization and can yield such large financial rewards. If, in addition, the opportunities for travel and adventure are taken into account, what profession promises a more interesting and useful life?

So far we have discussed geology as a profession. It has proved its value also as a training for administrative and other public careers. The profession contributes its full share of men to these activities. The practice of geology deals with a wide variety of factors, and requires the constant exercise of judgment in balancing, correlating, and integrating these factors in order to reach sound conclusions. This objective treatment of complex situations is valuable training for the handling of human affairs.

ETHICS OF THE ECONOMIC GEOLOGIST

Ethical questions involved in the practice of economic geology have called out much discussion, and, in some cases, marked differences of opinion among men equally desirous of doing the right thing. In the plain choice between right and wrong, there is of course no difference of opinion. Unfortunately in many of the questions which arise the alternatives are not so clearly labeled.

The lure of discovery and quick returns always has, and doubtless always will, draw into the field large numbers of persons without sound ethical anchorage or standards. Fortunately, these are not the persons in control of the mineral industries; they are mere incidents in the great and stable business built up by legitimate demands for raw materials.

The view is sometimes expressed that the geologist should hold himself aloof from the business or applied phases of his profession, because of the danger of being tainted with commercialism. This argument would apply to the engineer as well as to the geologist. To carry such a procedure through to its logical conclusion would mean substantially the withdrawal of scientific aid from industry,--which, to the writer, is hardly a debatable question. Circumstances are trending inevitably to the larger use of geologic science in the commercial field. The problems of ethics cannot be solved by staying out. The economic geologist is rather called upon to do his part in raising the standards of ethics in that part of the field in which he has influence. This he can do by careful appraisal of all the conditions relating to a problem which he is asked to take up, and by refusing to act where questionable ethical standards are apparent or suspected. He must understand fully the purposes for which his report is to be used; merely as a matter of professional self-interest, there is no other course open to him. In a field in which there is so much danger from loose ethical conceptions, the premium on rigid honesty and nice appreciation of professional ethics is proportionately higher. The extreme care taken in this matter by acknowledged leaders in the profession of economic geology should be carefully considered by the young man entering the profession. There is a reason.

In other chapters reference is made to certain special ethical questions, such as the use of geology in mining litigation (pp. 349-355), and the necessity of the geologist's recognizing his own limitations (pp. 92-94), but no attempt has been made to cover the variety of such questions that may come up. It is safe to assume that no special ethical code can be made sufficiently comprehensive, detailed, and elastic to cover all the contingencies which are likely to be met in the practice of economic geology; nor is it likely that any such code, if attempted, would be any improvement on the spirit of the Golden Rule. Simple decency and common sense in their broader implications are essential to the practice of the profession.

INDEX

Abrasives, 267-270, 397

Abyssinia, potash, 112

Adams, Frank D., 367

Adirondacks, New York, graphite, 282 iron ores, 160, 162, 163, 171 phosphate from magnetic ores, 105-106 use of magnetic surveys in tracing iron rocks, 317

Ad valorem method of valuation of mineral deposits, 331-335

Africa, bauxite, 242 coal, 116 cobalt, 255 copper, 197-198, 205 tin, 260 See also South Africa; North Africa; East Africa; West Africa. Alabama, bauxite, 243, 245 graphite, 281 iron, 52-53, 160, 162, 163, 166-167

Alaska, antimony, 248 copper, 36, 41, 47, 49, 199, 200-201 gold, 222, 224, 229 silver, 234 tin, 261, 262

Algeria, antimony, 247, 248 gypsum, 283 iron, 156, 160, 161, 194 petroleum, 128 phosphates, 104, 105, 106 See also North Africa.

Almaden, Spain, mercury ores, 256-257, 259

Alsace, potash, 111-113

Alsace-Lorraine, coal and iron of, under Peace Treaty, 401-402

Aluminum Company of America, 243

Aluminum ores, 241-246, 397 See also Bauxite.

Alunite, 39, 41-42, 112, 114, 230

Anaconda, Montana, arsenic production, 250

Anaconda Copper Mining Company, manufacture of phosphate, 105 use of geology in development and exploration, 326-327

Anamorphism, defined, 27, 57

Anamorphism of mineral deposits, 26, 57-58

Anhydrite, occurrence in gypsum deposits, 284-285

Anticlines, occurrence of oil in, 141-142, 147-148

Antimonial lead, 246

Antimony ores, 246-249, 398

Apex law, 349-350, 353

Aplites, 35

Appalachians, barite, 274 bauxite, 245 graphite, 282-283 petroleum, 132, 135 pitchblende, 266 pyrite, 108 tin, 262 See also under individual states.

Argentina, borax, 275 mica, 286 petroleum, 128 tungsten, 183

Arizona, asbestos, 271, 272 copper, 33, 38, 41, 47, 48, 198-199, 203, 204-205, 208, 314, 316 gold, 222 manganese, 175 molybdenum, 186,187 silver, 234 tungsten, 183 turquoise, 293

Arkansas, bauxite, 96, 243, 244-245, 246 diamonds, 292 fuller's earth, 279 hones, oilstones and whetstones, 269 phosphates, 105 zinc, 215

Arnold, Ralph, 134, 136, 149-150

Arsenic ores, 249-251, 397

Artesian wells, 73

Asbestos, 270-272, 398

Asphalt and bitumen, 56, 151-153, 397

Atolia, California, tungsten ores, 185

Atwood, W. W., 414

Australasia, cement, 87 coal, 116 gold, 222

Australia, antimony, 247 arsenic, 250 asbestos, 271, 272 bauxite, 242 bismuth, 252 coal, 115 copper, 197-198 gold, 41, 222, 224 iron, 154, 164, 165 lead, 210-211, 212 molybdenum, 186 phosphates, 105 silver, 232 tin, 260 tungsten, 183 zinc, 214-215, 216

Australia, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343, 345

Austria, cement, 87 graphite, 280 mercury, 256, 257 molybdenum, 186 talc, 299 uranium and radium, 264 zinc, 214

Austria-Hungary, barite, 272 coal, 115, 116 iron, 160, 161 magnesite, 191-193 manganese, 174 silver, 232 See also Hungary.

Austria-Hungary, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

Ball clay, 85, 398

"Bar" theory of formation of thick salt beds, 297

Baraboo, Wisconsin, quartzites of, 82

Barite, 272-274, 397

Basalt, 17, 19, 82, 90

Bauxite, 9, 50, 96, 241-246, 397

Bavaria, graphite, 280

Bawdwin Mines, Burma, lead and zinc, 209, 214

Beaumont Field, Texas, occurrence of oil, 148

Belgian Congo, cobalt, 255 copper, 205

Belgium, barite, 272 cement, 87 coal, 115-117, 127, 401 flint linings, 269 iron, 160-161 lead, 54-55, 210 millstones and buhrstones, 269 phosphates, 104 zinc, 54-55, 214

Belgium, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64, 280

Belle Isle, Newfoundland, iron ores, 52-53, 160, 166

Bergholm, Carl, 319

Bergstrom, Gunnar, 319

Bessemer processes of steel making, 158, 161

Bilbao, Spain; iron ores, 160, 170

Billingsley, Paul, and Grimes, J. A., 44

Bingham, Utah, copper and lead ores, 37, 42, 47, 199, 203, 204, 207, 208, 212, 314

Birmingham, Alabama, iron ores, 160, 162, 163, 166-167 See also Clinton iron ores.

Bisbee, Arizona, copper ores, 47, 198, 204, 314, 316

Bismuth ores, 252-253, 397

Bitumen and asphalt, 56, 151-153, 397

Black Hills, South Dakota, gold ores, 228, 229 tin ores, 262

"Blue ground," occurrence of diamonds in, 291

"Bluestone," 84

Bohemia, uranium and radium ores, 265

Boise Basin, Idaho, monazite deposits, 289

Boleo, Lower California, copper ores, 201

Bolivia, antimony, 247 bismuth, 252, 253 borax, 275 copper, 206 nitrates, 103 petroleum, 128 silver, 232 tin, 261, 262-263 tungsten, 183, 184

Bolivia, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

Bonne Terre limestone, Missouri, zinc ores, 217

Boone formation, Missouri, zinc ores, 217

Borax, 274-277, 397

Borax Lake, California, borax deposits, 276

Borneo, diamond dust, 268 platinum, 238

Bort, 267, 268, 398

Boulder batholith, Montana, ore-deposits of, 44

Boulder County, Colorado, tungsten ores, 184

Braden copper ores, Chile, 199

Brazil, chromite, 179 coal, 116 diamonds and diamond dust, 268, 292 graphite, 280 iron, 52-53, 162, 165, 167, 313 manganese, 174-175, 176 mica, 286 monazite, 288, 289 oil shales, 151 zirconium, 189-190

Brazil, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

Briey district, France, iron ores, 161, 163 vanadium, 187

Brinton, Virginia, arsenic ores, 251

British Coal Commission, 367

British Columbia, laws relating to mineral resources, 344

British Empire. See Great Britain.

British Guiana, bauxite, 242, 243

British South Africa, coal, 116

Broken Hill, New South Wales, lead and zinc ores, 209, 212

Bromine, 277-278, 397

Brooks, Alfred H., 404, 408

Brooks, Alfred H., and LaCroix, Morris F., 404

Buhrstones, 269

Building stone, 80-84, 88-90, 397

Bureau of Mines, 403, 406

Burma, lead, 209, 210, 212 rubies, 289, 292 silver, 233 tungsten, 183, 185 zinc, 214, 216

Burrows, J. S., 367

Butler, B. S., Loughlin, G. F., and Heikes, V. C., 44, 55, 230

Butte, Montana, arsenic in copper ores, 251 copper ores, 40, 47, 49, 198-199, 201-203, 207, 208 manganese ores, 177, 314 silver ores, 234, 314 use of placers in locating ores, 316 zinc ores, 215-216 zonal arrangement of minerals, 42, 44

Cadmium ores, 253-254, 397

California, antimony, 248 asbestos, 271 asphalt and bitumen, 152 basalt, 82 borax, 275, 276-277 chromite, 179 copper, 199, 204 diatomaceous earth, 269 fuller's earth, 279 gold, 222, 224, 227, 229, 308, 316, 342 granite, 82 graphite, 281 grinding pebbles, 268 magnesite, 191-193 manganese, 175 mercury, 40, 256, 257, 259 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133, 135, 137 potash, 112, 113-114 pyrite, 108 serpentine, 83 silver, 234, 308 tourmaline, 293 tungsten, 183

Campbell, J. Morrow, 185

Campbell, M. R., 121, 122, 366

Campbell, M. R., and Parker, E. W., 367, 370-371

Canada, arsenic, 250 asbestos, 270-271, 272 cement, 87 chromite, 179 coal, 115, 116 cobalt, 255 copper, 197-198 corundum, 268, 270 feldspar, 86 fluorspar, 193, 194 gold, 222 graphite, 280-281 grindstones and pulpstones, 269 gypsum, 283-284 iron, 52-53, 155, 156, 160, 165 magnesite, 191-193 mica, 286, 287 molybdenum, 186 natural gas, 151 nickel, 180-182 petroleum, 128 phosphates, 105, 106 platinum, 238 pyrite, 107-108 salt, 294 silver, 232, 234-235 talc, 299, 300 titanium, 190 zinc, 214, 215

Canada, laws relating to ownership to mineral resources, 343 use of magnetic surveys in tracing iron rocks, 317

Cananea, Sonora, Mexico, copper ores, 203

Cannel coal, 125

Cape Colony, South Africa, asbestos, 272

Capillarity, effect on ground-water level, 70 effect on petroleum migration, 142-143

Capital value of mineral resources, 64, 328

"Capping," of copper ores, 47

Carbonado, 268

Carey Act, classification of public lands under, 310

Carmel, New York, arsenic ores, 251

Casing-head gasoline, 139, 151

Caucasus region, Russia, manganese ores, 174, 176

Cement, 86-88, 397

Cementation, mineral products resulting from, 24

Cementing materials, source of, 25

Central America, cement, 87, 88 silver, 232 See also Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama.

Central Powers. See Germany, Austria-Hungary.

Cerium ores, See Monazite.

Ceylon, graphite, 280-283 mica, 286

Chalk, 83, 398

Chamberlin, T. C., 217

Chamberlin, T. C., and Salisbury, R. D., 415

Chance, H. M., 367, 368

Chert, use for abrasives, 267, 268, 270

Chile, borax, 275, 276 bromine, 277 coal, 116 copper, 197-199, 203 iron, 155, 161, 162, 164, 171 manganese, 176 nitrates, 100, 101-104 phosphates, 105, 106 potash, 112 silver, 232 sulphur, 109-110

Chile, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64, 261

China, antimony, 247-248, 249 arsenic, 250, 251 bismuth, 252 coal, 115, 116, 127, 154 iron, 154, 160, 164, 165, 171 petroleum, 128 salt, 294 silver, 232 tin, 260 tungsten, 183, 184

China, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

"Chloriding" for silver ores, 314

Chrome (or chromite) ores, 178-180, 307, 365-366, 398

Clarke, F. W., 13, 17, 18

Classification of mineral deposits, 27-59 of mineral lands, 309-311 of mineral materials, adjustment of scientific to commercial names, 356

Clays, 18, 85, 91-92, 398

Cle Elum, Washington, iron ores, 58

Cleavage, 26

Cleveland district, England, iron ores, 161

Clifton-Morenci district, Arizona, copper ores, 38, 198

Climate, as a factor in exploration, 315 effect of in formation of bauxites, 246

Clinton iron ores, 9, 52-53, 163, 166-167, 218, 313, 317

Coal, conservation of, 365, 366-382 European international situation, 116-117, 386, 387, 393, 400-403 general economic and geologic features, 56, 115-127, 309, 397 reserves, 116, 360-361, 366-367

Cobalt district, Ontario, arsenic, 251 cobalt, 255 silver ores, 232, 234-235, 308, 316 use of coefficient to estimate future output, 322

Cobalt ores, 254-255, 398

Coeur d'Alene district, Idaho, lead-silver ores, 39, 45, 211, 212-213, 216, 234

Coke, 118-119

Colloids, content of in clays, 92

Colombia, coal, 116 emeralds, 289, 293 gold, 222 platinum, 238

Colombia, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

"Colorado," 313

Colorado, arsenic, 250 asphalt and bitumen, 152 bismuth, 253 coal, 117 fluorspar, 194 gold, 222, 230 graphite, 281 lead, 211, 212 molybdenum, 186 oil shales, 150 petroleum, 133 silver, 234 tungsten, 183, 184 turquoise, 293 uranium and radium, 264-265, 266 vanadium, 187-188 zinc, 216, 219-220

Commercial and political control of mineral resources, 65, 387, 388 See also under individual resources.

Common rocks, as mineral resources, 80-94

Comstock Lode, Nevada, silver ores, 235-236, 308

Congo. See Belgian Congo

Connecticut, basalt, 82 diatomaceous earth, 269 tourmaline, 293

Conover, Julian D., 12

Conservation, 359-382, 393-395 application of economic geology to, 1-2 of coal, 366-382 of common rocks, 81 of human energy, 362 international aspects, 362-363, 375, 376-377, 393-395 of petroleum, 137-139

Conservation Commission of Canada, 367

Contact metamorphism, 20, 24, 25-27, 36-37 See also Igneous after-effects.

Contracts, classification of earth materials in, 356-357

Copper ores, 9, 36-50, 51-52, 55, 197, 209, 307, 308-309, 313-314, 318, 396

Cornwall, England, tin ores, 42, 260, 262, 263 uranium and radium ores, 264

Corocoro, Bolivia, copper ores, 206

Corundum, 267-268, 270, 398

Costa Rica, manganese, 176

"Cracking" processes for refining petroleum, 137, 139

Cripple Creek district, Colorado, gold ores, 230

Cuba, chromite, 179 copper, 197 iron, 8-9, 50, 58, 96, 155, 160, 163, 171-173, 313, 349 manganese, 175 nickel, 181 petroleum, 128

Cuyuna Range, Minnesota, manganese ores, 175, 177

Cycle, erosion or topographic, 6-7

Cyclic nature of ore concentration, 7-8, 47-48, 56, 169, 201, 205, 208, 325

Cyprus, asbestos, 271, 272

Dams, geologic problems involved in construction, 414

Davis, W. M., 408

Death Valley, California, borax deposits, 276

Degree of economic geology, 427-428

Denmark, cement, 87 chalk, 83 grinding pebbles, 268

Depletion of mineral deposits, as factor in valuation and taxation, 331, 337, 339

Depth as a factor in mineral deposition, 43, 49, 58-59

Diamond dust, 267, 268, 398

Diamonds, 289-292, 316, 317

Diatomaceous earth, 267, 269, 398

Diorite, 82

Dolomite, 23, 192

Domes, occurrence of oil in. See Anticlines.

Domes, salt and sulphur, Gulf Coast, 110, 298

Drilling, exploration of mineral deposits by, 320-321

Drilling records, public registration of, 305-306

Ducktown, Tennessee, copper ores, 204

Dutch East Indies, natural gas, 151 petroleum, 128, 129 tin, 260 use of coefficient to estimate tin reserves, 322

Dutch Guiana, bauxite, 243

Dutch West Indies, phosphates, 105, 106

Dynamic metamorphism, 25-26

East Africa, mica, 286

East Indies. See Dutch East Indies.

Eckel, E. C., 404

Economic Liaison Committee, 406

Egypt, petroleum, 128 phosphates, 104

Eiserner Hut, 313

Electrical conductivity, use in exploration of mineral deposits, 319

Ely, Nevada, copper ores, 41, 203

Emeralds, 289, 291, 293

Emery, 267-268, 270, 397, 398

Emmons, W. H., 43

Empire, Colorado, molybdenum ores, 186

Energy resources, 115-153 accelerating production of, 64, 130-131, 361, 366-367

Engineering, application of economic geology to, 2, 413-419

England. See Great Britain

Enrichment, secondary, 7-8, 25, 46-50. See also under Copper ores, silver ores, etc.

Epigenetic ore deposits, use of term, 32, 36

"Equated Income" method of taxation, 335-336

Erosion, relation to oxide zones, 47-48

Erosion cycle, description of, 6-7

Ethics, questions of, 430-431

Europe, coal and iron situation under terms of Peace Treaty, 400-403

Expert witnesses, use of geologists as, 349-355, 357-358

Exploitation of mineral deposits, functions of geologist, 326-327

Exploration of mineral deposits, 301-327 effect of ownership laws on, 347-349 effect of taxation on, 339-341 quantitative aspects of, 321-322, 324-326 relation to international conditions, 395-396

Extralateral rights, litigation affecting, 349-355

Extrusive rocks, formation of, 19

Federated Malay States. See Malay States.

Feldspar, 16, 86, 268-269, 397

Ferro-alloy minerals, 156-158, 173-196, 307, 362-363, 365-366, 393-394, 397-398

Ferroboron, 275

Ferrocerium, 288

Ferrochrome, 178

Ferromanganese, 173-174

Ferromolybdenum, 186

Ferrosilicon, 195

Ferrotitanium, 190

Ferrotungsten, 182-183

Ferrovanadium, 187

Ferrozirconium, 189

Ferruginous chert, 167

Fertilizer minerals, 99-114

Field work for students of economic geology, 425-426

Flint linings for tube mills, 269

Florida, fuller's earth, 279 phosphates, 105, 107 titanium, 190, 191 zirconium, 189

Flowage, rock, 25, 26

Fluorspar, 193-194, 397

Foothill district, California, copper ores, 204

Formosa, petroleum, 128

Foundations, application of geology to, 413

France, antimony, 247, 249 arsenic, 250-251 asphalt and bitumen, 152 barite, 272 bauxite, 242, 245 cement, 87 chalk, 83 coal, 115-117, 127 coal and iron situation under Peace Treaty, 400-403 fluorspar, 194 grinding pebbles, 268 gypsum, 283 iron, 154, 160-162, 163, 166-167, 402-403 manganese, 176 millstones and buhrstones, 269 molding sand, 84 oil shales, 150 phosphates, 104, 105 potash, 111-113 salt, 294 talc, 299 vanadium, 187 zinc, 214

France, control of various minerals in other countries, 64, 104-105, 178, 180, 210, 215, 222, 238, 247, 261, 280 laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343 relative position in regard to supplies of minerals, 399

Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, zinc ores, 215-216, 220

"Freestone," 84

French Guiana, bauxite, 242

Fuel ratio of coal, defined, 120

Fuller's earth, 278-279, 397

Gabbro, 19, 82

Gale, Hoyt S., 111

Galena dolomite, Wisconsin, zinc ores, 217

Galicia, petroleum, 128, 129 potash, 112

Ganister, 84, 91, 195

Garnet, 267, 268, 270, 398

Gas, natural, 57, 151

Georgia, asbestos, 271, 272 barite, 273 bauxite, 243, 245 corundum, 270 fuller's earth, 279 marble, 83

Georgia granite, volume change in weathering of, 21

Germany, arsenic, 250-251 barite, 272-273 bismuth, 252 borax, 275, 277 bromine, 277, 278 cadmium, 253, 254 cement, 87 coal, 115-117, 127, 400-403 copper, 9, 52, 197-198, 206 fluorspar, 194 gypsum, 283 iron, 154, 160-162, 402-403 lead, 54-55, 210-211 lignites, 379, 402 millstones and buhrstones, 269 nitrates, manufactured, 101-102 petroleum, 128 potash, 111-112 salt, 294, 297 silver, 232 tripoli and rottenstone, 269 uranium and radium, 264 zinc, 54-55, 214-215, 216 zirconium, 189

Germany, control of various minerals in other countries, 64, 174, 183, 189, 198, 211, 215, 222, 232, 257, 261, 271, 288, 387 participation of government in mineral trade, 388 relative position in regard to supplies of minerals, 399

Geysers, 72

Gilbert, Chester G., 123

Gilbert, Chester G., and Pogue, Joseph E., 119, 134, 138

Gilpin County, Colorado, uranium ores, 266

Glacial geology, application to railroad building, 418 application to road materials, 91, 418

Glacial soils, 95

Globe, Arizona, copper ores, 198

Gneissic structure, 26

Gogebic district, Michigan, iron ores, 312, 318, 325-326

Gold, monetary reserves, 223

Gold Coast, West Africa, manganese, 176

Gold ores, 36-50, 51, 221-230, 308-309, 313-314, 397

Goldfield, Nevada, alunite, 41-42, 114 bismuth, 253 gold-silver ores, 36, 39, 230, 308

Gossan, 47, 109, 173, 313

Government ownership and control. See Nationalization.

Governments, participation in mineral ownership and international trade, 388-390

Granite, 17, 19, 82, 90

Graphite, 279-283, 398

Graphite Association, Southern, 405

Gravel, sand and, 84-85

Gray, F. W., 368

Great Basin, Nevada, covering of mineral deposits by lavas, 311-312 gold-silver ores, occurrence in a metallogenic province, 308 tungsten ores, 185

Great Britain, arsenic, 250 barite, 272 cadmium, 253 cement, 78 chalk, 83 clay, 85 coal, 115-117, 126, 127 fluorspar, 193-194 fuller's earth, 278-279 grindstones and pulpstones, 269 gypsum, 283 iron, 154, 160-161, 163 manganese, 176 salt, 294 tripoli and rottenstone, 269 uranium and radium, 264

Great Britain, control of various minerals outside of British Isles, 64, 101, 104-105, 132, 152, 165, 178, 181, 183, 198, 210, 214, 222, 225, 232, 242, 247, 252, 256-257, 260, 275, 280 income taxes on mineral properties, 337, 339 laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343 participation of government in mineral trade, 388 relative position, in regard to supplies of minerals, 399 tendencies toward nationalization, 346

Great Plains, lignite, 118 pumice, 268

Greece, chromite, 178-179 emery, 268, 270 magnesite, 191-193 zinc, 214

Greenland, graphite, 280

Gregory, Herbert, 407, 413

Grimes, J. A., and Billingsley, Paul, 44

Grinding pebbles, 267, 268, 270, 398

Grindstones, 269

Ground-waters, composition of and relation to commercial use, 73-75 distribution and movement of, 68-72 influence in deposition of ore deposits, 41-42 relation to military operations, 78-79, 408, 410-411 relation to rock slides, 78, 416-417 source of, 68

Ground-water level, description of, 70 relation to oxide zone, 48 relation to zone of weathering, 22

Ground-water supply, relation of geology to, 75-76

Guano, 104, 106

Guatemala, chromite, 179

Guiana, bauxite, 242-243

Gulf Coast region, lignite, 118 petroleum, 132, 135, 137 salt, 298 sulphur, 110 See also Louisiana, Texas, etc.

Gypsum, 100, 283-285, 397

Haas, Frank, 367, 369

"Head" of underground water, 71-73

Heikes, V. C., Butler, B. S., and Loughlin, G. F., 44, 55, 230

Highway building, application of geology to, 90-91

Holland, cement, 87 commercial and political control of various minerals, 64 See also Dutch East Indies, etc.

Homestake Mine, South Dakota, gold ores, 229

Hones, 269

Hoover, Herbert C., 322

Hot springs, relation to ore-deposits, 40, 258-259

Hot waters, evidence of formation of ores by, 37-41

Huancavelica district, Peru, mercury ores, 258

Hudson River, physiographic problems in tunneling under, 415

Hudson's Bay, possible diamond field, 317

Humus, 94

Hunan Province, China, antimony ores, 249

Hungary, antimony, 247 natural gas, 151 See also Austria-Hungary.

Hydrosphere, 18

Hypogene ores, use of term, 32-33

Idaho, coal, 117 lead, 39, 45, 209, 211, 212-213 monazite, 289 phosphates, 105 silver, 234 zinc, 214, 216

Idria, Austria-Hungary, mercury ores, 257

Igneous after-effects, ore-deposits formed as, 19-20, 36-46

Igneous rocks, formation of, 19 mineral deposits associated with, 19-20, 34-46 principal minerals of, 14-16 proportions of principal types, 17 relative abundance of, 17 weathering of, 20

Illinois, clay, 85 coal, 115, 117, 126 fluorspar, 194 limestone, 83 petroleum, 132, 133, 135 pyrite, 109 sand and gravel, 85 tripoli and rottenstone, 269 zinc, 216

Illinois Geological Survey, cooperative exploration for oil, 147, 306

Income tax, application to mineral properties, 336-339

India, bauxite, 242

India, bromine, 277 chromite, 178-179 coal, 115, 116 corundum, 268 diamond dust, 268 gypsum, 283 iron, 154, 164, 165 manganese, 174-176 mica, 286 monazite, 288, 289 petroleum, 128, 129 platinum, 238 salt, 294 zirconium, 189

Indiana, coal, 117, 126 hones, oilstones and whetstones, 269 limestones, 83 petroleum, 133, 135

Interest rate, as a guide in conservation, 364 choice of for valuation purposes, 233 limiting effect on acquirement of reserves, 334

International aspects of mineral resources, 2, 383-404

International Coal Commission, 387, 393, 402

International trade, in common rocks, 80 in minerals, 383-388 participation of governments, 388-390

Intrusive rocks, formation of, 19

Iowa, flint linings, 269 grinding pebbles, 268 gypsum, 284 zinc, 216

Ireland, bauxite, 242

Iron and coal, situation of western Europe under terms of Peace Treaty, 400-403

Iron and steel, metallurgical processes, 158-159

Iron and steel industry, possible establishment on west coast of United States, 155, 165

Iron cap, of sulphide deposits, 47, 109, 313

Iron ores, anti-conservational effect of war, 365 attempt to estimate reserves of continents, 322 exploration of in Lake Superior region, 323-326 general geologic and economic features, 8-9, 28, 34, 36, 47, 50, 52-53, 55-56, 58, 96, 153-156, 158-173, 397 litigation concerning Cuban, 349 metallogenic provinces and epochs, 308-309 outcrops, 312-313 taxation of in Lake Superior region, 335 use of magnetic surveys, 317-318 world reserves, 162-165, 360-361

Itabirite, 167

Italy, asbestos, 271, 272 asphalt and bitumen, 152 barite, 272 bauxite, 242 borax, 275 cement, 87 graphite, 280 manganese, 176 marble, 83 mercury, 256-257 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 128 pumice, 268 salt, 294 sulphur, 109-110 talc, 299 zinc, 214-215

Italy, coal situation under Peace Treaty, 401 commercial and political control of various minerals, 64 relative position in regard to supplies of minerals, 399

Japan, arsenic, 250 cement, 87 chromite, 178-179 coal, 115, 117 copper, 197-198 gold, 222 graphite, 280 iron, 154, 160 manganese, 174 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 128 silver, 232 sulphur, 109-110 tungsten, 183, 185 zinc, 214

Japan, control of various minerals in other countries, 64, 105, 154, 247

Jasper, 167

Java, manganese, 176

Jerome, Arizona, copper ores, 41, 47, 198, 204-205, 314

Joachimsthal, Bohemia, uranium and radium ores, 265

Joint Mineral Information Board, 406

Joplin district, Missouri, cadmium, 254 lead and zinc ores, 54-55, 209, 211, 214, 215, 216-219

Juneau, Alaska, gold ores, 229

Kansas, gypsite, 284 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133, 135 salt, 294 zinc, 215

Kaolin, 85, 398

Katamorphism, defined, 27, 57

Katanga, Belgian Congo, cobalt, 255 copper ores, 205

Kennecott, Alaska, copper ores, 36, 41, 47, 49, 200-201

Kentucky, asphalt and bitumen, 152, 153 coal, 117 fluorspar, 194 marble, 83 petroleum, 133 sandstone, 84

Kimberley, South Africa, diamonds, 291-292

Knox dolomite, Tennessee, zinc ores, 219

Korea, gold, 222 graphite, 280, 282 iron, 160 molybdenum, 186 tungsten, 183

Lacroix, Morris F., and Brooks, Alfred H., 404

Lake Superior copper ores, 36, 52, 200, 206

Lake Superior copper, silver, gold ores, occurrence in a metallogenic province, 308

Lake Superior iron ores, 8, 47, 55-56, 160, 162, 163, 167-170, 309, 312-313

Lake Superior region, iron ore exploration in, 317-318, 323-326

Land grants in United States, retarding effect on exploration, 349

"Land-plaster", 100

Laterites, 172-173

Laws relating to mineral resources, 342-358

Lawton region, Pennsylvania, coal, 117

Lead and zinc, Wisconsin, equated income method of taxation, 335-336

Lead ores, 36-50, 54-55, 209-213, 307, 308, 313-314, 361, 397

Leadville, Colorado, bismuth, 253 lead and zinc ores, 212, 216, 219-220

Leasing law, on public lands in western United States, 348

Leith, C. K., 323

Leith, C. K., and Mead, W. J., 45

Leith, C. K., and Van Hise, C. R., 56, 324

Lesher, C. E., and Smith, George Otis, 371, 372, 373, 375

Lignite, 118, 120, 122, 124 German development of, 379, 402

Lime, 82, 99-100, 397

Limestone, 15, 17, 23, 82-83, 89-90, 91

Lincolnshire district, England, iron ores, 161

Lindgren, W., 43

Lipari Islands, Italy, pumice, 268

Lithosphere, principal elements of, 13 principal minerals of, 14-16 principal rocks of, 16-17

Litigation, use of geologists in, 349-355, 357-358

Lode, application of legal term to diverse mineral deposits, 350

Long-wall system of coal mining, conservational aspect, 368 subsidence of overlying ground and resulting litigation, 357, 417

Longwy, France, iron ores, 161

Lorraine, iron ores, 52-53, 161-162, 163, 166, 364, 402-403 phosphate from Thomas slag, 104

Loughlin, G. F., Butler, B. S., and Heikes, V. C., 44, 55, 230

Louisiana, natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133, 135 salt, 298 sulphur, 110

Lower California, copper, 201 magnesite, 191-192

Luxemburg, coal situation under Peace Treaty, 401 iron ores, 160-162, 163 See also under Lorraine, iron ores

Madagascar, corundum, 268 graphite, 280-282

Magmatic segregation, mineral deposits thus formed, 34-35, 59

Magmatic waters, evidence of formation of ores by, 37-41

Magnesite, 191-193, 397

Magnetic surveys in tracing mineral ledges, 317-318

Magnetite deposits, 34, 171, 191, 317-318

Maine, feldspar, 86 granite, 82 tourmaline, 293

Malay States, tin, 260-261 tungsten, 183

Manchuria, iron, 160

Mandatory countries, exploitation of minerals in, 390-391

Manganese ores, 47, 55, 173-178, 314, 386, 398

Mansfield shales, Germany, copper ores, 9, 52, 206

Mantle rock, 22

Mapimi, Mexico, arsenic production, 250

Marble, 83, 89-90

Marbut, Curtis F., 95

Marl, 83

Marquette district, Michigan, iron ore outcrops, 312

Maryland, diatomaceous earth, 269 serpentine, 83

Marysville, Utah, alunite deposits, 114

Mashing, 25-26

Massachusetts, granite, 82 serpentine, 83

McCoy, A. W., 142

Mead, Daniel W., 69, 77-78

Mead, W. J., 245

Mead, W. J., and Leith, C. K., 45

Mehl, M. G., 144

Menominee district, Michigan, iron ore outcrops, 312

Mercury ores, 40, 255-260, 398

Mesabi district, Minnesota, concentration of siliceous iron ores, 156 exploration for iron ores, 313, 318, 324, 325

Mesopotamia, petroleum, 128-130, 137, 391

Mesothorium, 288

Metallogenic provinces and epochs, 308-309

Metamorphic cycle and its relation to classification of mineral deposits, 27-28

"Metamorphic rocks," defined, 27

Metamorphism, relation to economic geology, 10 use of principles of in exploration for mineral deposits, 319-320 See also Katamorphism, Anamorphism, Contact metamorphism, Dynamic metamorphism, Weathering, etc.

Metasomatic replacement, 24

Metcalf-Morenci district, Arizona, copper ores, 38, 198

Meteoric waters, influence of in deposition of ore deposits, 25, 41-42

Mexico, antimony, 247-248 arsenic, 250 cement, 87 copper, 197-198, 201, 203 gold, 222 graphite, 280-282, 283 lead, 210-211 magnesite, 191-192 mercury, 256, 258 molybdenum, 186 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 128, 129, 137, 144 silver, 231-232, 233 vanadium, 188 zinc, 214-215

Mexico, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

Miami, Arizona, copper ores, 33, 47, 48, 198, 203, 208

Mica, 285-288, 398

Michigan, bromine, 277 copper, 199 grindstones and pulpstones, 269 gypsum, 284 iron. See Lake Superior iron ores, Gogebic district, etc. limestone, 83 salt, 294, 297

Michigan, taxation of iron ores, 335

Midcontinent field, petroleum, 132, 135, 137, 141, 146

Military geology, preparation of textbook, 407

Military operations, relation of ground-waters to, 78-79

Millstones, 269

Minas Geraes, Brazil, iron ores, 52-53, 162, 165, 167, 313

Mineral deposits, classification and general features of origin, 27-59 exploration and development, 301-327 origin as a factor in economic problems, 29-31, 322-323 outcrops, 311-317 secondary concentration, 46-50, 54-57 See also under Iron ores, Copper ores, etc. zonal arrangement, 42-45

Mineral industry, basis for popular interest in, 328 "social surplus" of, 330

Mineral lands, classification, 309-311

Mineral paints, relative position of United States, 397

Mineral provinces and epochs, 308-309

Mineral resources, conservation, 359-382 general quantitative considerations, 60-66 international aspects, 383-404 laws relating to, 342-358 nationalization, 345-347, 375-376, 377-378, 382 political and commercial control, 65 relative position of the United States in regard to supplies, 396-400 valuation and taxation, 328-341 world movement, 383-388 world reserves, 65-66

Mineralogy, relation to economic geology, 3

"Minette" iron ores, 158, 161, 166

Mining law, 342-358

Mining methods, control of by government or owners in interests of conservation, 355

Minnesota, granite, 82 iron. See Lake Superior iron ores, Mesabi district, etc. manganese, 175, 177

Minnesota, taxation of iron ores, 335

Mississippi Valley, cadmium, 254 lead and zinc ores, 54-55, 108, 211-212, 214, 215-219, 308, 313

Missouri, barite, 273-274 cadmium, 254 lead, 209, 211 silica for refractories, 195 tripoli and rottenstone, 269 zinc, 214, 215, 217-218

Molybdenum ores, 185-187, 397

Monazite, 288-289, 398

Montana, arsenic, 250-251 copper, 40, 42, 47, 49, 198-199, 201-203, 207, 208 gold, 222 graphite, 281, 283 manganese, 175, 176-177 petroleum, 133 phosphates, 105 sapphires, 293 silver, 42, 234, 237, 314 zinc, 42, 216, 219

Monte Amiata district, Italy, mercury ores, 257

Morenci-Metcalf district, Arizona, copper ores, 38, 198

Mother Lode district, California, gold ores, 229, 308, 316

Munitions Resources Commission of Canada, 404

Nancy, France, iron ores, 161

National Academy of Sciences, 407

National Conservation Commission, 367

National district, Nevada, antimony ores, 249

Nationalization of mineral resources 345-347, 375-376, 377-378, 382, 388

Natural abrasives, 267-270, 397

Natural gas, 57, 151

Nebraska, potash, 112, 114

Netherlands. See Holland, Dutch East Indies, etc.

Nevada, alunite, 39, 41-42, 114 antimony, 247, 249 bismuth, 253 borax, 275, 276 copper, 41, 199, 203 diatomaceous earth, 269 gold, 36, 222, 230, 308, 311-312 graphite, 281 grinding pebbles, 268 mercury, 357 oil shales, 151 platinum, 239-240 silver, 36, 38, 234, 235-237, 308, 311-312 tungsten, 183 turquoise, 293 zinc, 216

New Almaden, California, mercury ores, 259

New Brunswick, gypsum, 283-284

New Caledonia, chromite, 178-179 nickel, 180-182

New Cornelia, Arizona, copper ores, 203

Newfoundland, iron ores, 52-53, 160, 166 laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 344

New Hampshire, fluorspar, 194 garnet, 268 mica, 287

New Idria, California, mercury ores, 259

New Jersey, arsenic, 250 basalt, 82 clay, 85 iron, 171 sand and gravel, 85 zinc, 215, 220

New Mexico, copper, 199, 203 fluorspar, 194 silver, 234 uranium and radium, 265-266 zinc, 216

New South Wales, Australia, bismuth, 252-253 coal, 115, 116 lead, 209, 210, 212 platinum, 238 zinc, 214, 216

New York, arsenic, 250, 251 emery, 268, 270 garnet, 268 graphite, 281, 282 gypsum, 284 iron, 160, 162, 163, 171 limestone, 83 millstones and buhrstones, 269 petroleum, 132, 133 pyrite, 108 salt, 294, 297 sandstone, 84 talc, 299

New Zealand, bismuth, 252 phosphates, 105 platinum, 238 tungsten, 183

New Zealand, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343

Nickel ores, 34-35, 180-182, 307, 308, 318, 398

Nitrates, 99-100, 101-104, 386, 392, 398

Nonesuch beds, Michigan, copper ores, 52, 206

North Africa, iron, 156, 160, 161, 164 lead, 210 phosphates, 104, 105, 106 potash, 112 zinc, 214-215

North Carolina, coal, 117 corundum, 268, 270 emeralds, 293 feldspar, 86 garnet, 268 granite, 82 mica, 287 monazite, 288, 289 rubies, 292 sand and gravel, 85 sapphires, 293

Northern Plains, coal, 118

Norway, copper, 197-198 molybdenum, 186 nickel, 180 titanium, 190 zinc, 214 See also Scandinavia.

Nova Scotia, gypsum, 283-284 saddle-reef gold ores, 41

Oceania, mercury, 258 phosphates, 105, 106 tin, 261

Ohio, bromine, 277 clay, 85 coal, 117 grindstones and pulpstones, 269 gypsum, 284 hones, oilstones and whetstones, 269 limestone, 83 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 133 salt, 294 sand and gravel, 85 sandstone, 84

Oil. See Petroleum.

Oil shales, 56, 139, 150-151

Oilstones, 269

Oklahoma, asphalt, and bitumen, 152 gypsum, 284 lead, 211 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133, 135 tripoli and rottenstone, 269 zinc, 215

Ontario, Canada, arsenic, 251 cobalt, 255 corundum, 270 mica, 286 nickel, 34-35, 180-182, 308, 312, 318 platinum, 238, 239 silver, 232, 234-235, 308, 316 talc, 299, 300

Ontario, Canada, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 344

Onyx marble, 83

Open-hearth process of steel making, 158-159

Ore deposits. See Mineral deposits.

Oregon, borax, 275, 276 chromite, 179 mercury, 257

Origin of mineral deposits, as a factor in economic problems, 29-31, 322-323

Outcrops of mineral deposits, 311-316

Ownership laws, effect on exploration of mineral deposits, 347-349 relation of geology to, 349-355

Oxide zones, 22, 46-50, 313-314 See also under Copper ores, Silver ores, etc.

Pablo Beach, Florida, titanium ores, 190-191 zirconium ores, 189

Pacific coast, possible establishment of iron and steel industry, 155, 165

Pacific coast province, coal, 117

Palegeography, relation to economic geology, 4

Paleontology, relation to economic geology, 4

Palestine campaign, use of geologic data, 409

Panama, manganese, 176

Panama Canal, slides, 416-417

Parker, E. W., and Campbell, M. R., 367, 370-371

Peace Conference, use of geologists in advisory capacity, 356, 406

Peace Treaty, coal and iron situation of western Europe under terms of, 117, 400-403 effect of terms on valuation problems, 335 Silesian lead and zinc ores, 210, 214

Pearls, 289-292

Peat, formation of, 123-124

Pegmatites, 19-20, 35, 39

Peneplains, formation of, 6

Pennsylvania, basalt, 82 clay, 85 coal, 115, 117, 126 flint linings, 269 graphite, 281 iron, 171 limestone, 83 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 133 sand and gravel, 85 sandstone, 84 serpentine, 83 silica for refractories, 195 slate, 85

Persia, petroleum 128-130, 137, 391

Peru, bismuth, 252 borax, 275 coal, 116 copper, 197-198 mercury, 258 molybdenum, 186 nitrates, 103 petroleum, 128, 137 phosphates, 106 silver, 232 tungsten, 183 vanadium, 187, 188

Petroleum, 57, 127-150, 307, 310, 386, 396, 398

Petroliferous provinces, 149, 308

Petrology, relation to economic geology, 3

Philipsburg, Montana, manganese and silver ores, 37, 175, 176-177, 237

Phosphates, 99-100, 104-107, 397

Physiography, general discussion and relations to economic geology, 6-10 See also Topography.

Physiography, relation to bridge building, 413 relation to Hudson River tunnels, 415 relation to railway construction, 418 relation to river and harbor improvements, 414

Pisolites, 172

Pitch. See Asphalt.

Pittman Silver Act, 233

Placers, formation of, 51 gold deposits in, 227 See also Monazite, Platinum, Tin, Tungsten, and other minerals. use in tracing mineral outcrops, 316-317

Plasticity of clay, 92

Platinum ores, 51, 237-240, 386, 398

Plumbago. See Graphite.

Pogue, Joseph E., 100

Pogue, Joseph E., and Gilbert, Chester G., 119, 134, 138

Poland, lead and zinc, 210, 214

Political and commercial control of mineral resources, 65, 387-388 See also under individual resources.

Porosity of rocks, 69, 141

Porphyry copper ores, 197, 199, 203

Portland cement. See Cement.

Portugal, arsenic, 250 copper, 197-198, 204 pyrite, 107-108 salt, 294 tungsten, 183

Potash, 86, 99-100, 111-114, 386, 398

Precious stones, 289-293, 398

Primary ore deposits, use of term, 32

Primary ores, relation to depth, 49

Propylitic alteration, 39, 236

Protore, use of term, 33, 48

"Proximate" analyses of coal, 120

Public domain, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources on, 343-344

Pulpstones, 269

Pumice, 267, 268, 270, 398

Puzzolan cement. See Cement.

Pyrite, 100, 107-109, 307, 386, 397

Pyrophyllite, 299

Quartz, as geologic thermometer, 38 geologic occurrence, 16, 38-39, 43, 45, 47, 168-169, 196 production and use, 84, 267, 269

Quartzite, 84, 91

Quebec, Canada, asbestos, 270-272 magnesite, 193 mica, 286

Quebec, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 344

Queensland, Australia, arsenic, 250

Quicksilver ores. See Mercury ores.

Radium ores, 55, 263-266, 397

Railway construction, application of geology to, 417-418

Rambler, Wyoming, occurrence of platinum, 239

Ransome, F. L., 33, 208, 230

Ray, Arizona, copper ores, 33, 47, 48, 198, 203, 208

"Red Beds" copper ores, 9, 206

Registration, public, of drilling records, 305-306

Regulus, 247

Reparations Committee, 387, 393, 402

Replacement, metasomatic, 24

Reserves of mineral resources, 65-66, 359-363, 393-395 See also under individual resources.

"Resource cost" of coal, reduction of in interests of conservation, 334, 375

Rhode Island, coal, 117 graphite, 281

Rhodesia, asbestos, 272 chromite, 178-179

Ries, H., and Watson, T. L., 413

Rio Tinto, Spain, copper ores, 204 pyrite, 108

Road building, application of geology to, 90-91, 418

"Rock flour," defined, 95

Rock slides, 78, 415-417

Rocks, common, as mineral resources, 80-84

Rocky Mountain region, coal, 117 petroleum, 132, 135

Room-and-pillar system of coal mining, modification for conservational purposes, 368-369

Rottenstone, 267, 269

Roumania, graphite, 280 petroleum, 128, 129

Royal Ontario Nickel Commission, 181

Royalties on coal, reduction of in interests of conservation, 334, 375

Rubies, 289, 291-292

Russia, asbestos, 270-271, 272 cement, 87 chromite, 178-179 coal, 115, 127 copper, 197-198 gold, 222 iron, 155, 160-161, 163 manganese, 174-176 mercury, 256, 258 oil shales, 151 petroleum, 128-120, 137 phosphates, 104, 106 platinum, 238, 239 potash, 112 salt, 294 zinc, 214

Russia, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64 laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343

Russia, Asiatic, vanadium, 187 See also Siberia.

Saar Basin, coal of, under Peace Treaty, 401

Salisbury, R. D., and Chamberlin, T. C., 415

Salt, 294-298, 397

Salt domes of Gulf Coast, 298

Sand, 15, 84, 267

Sand and gravel, 84-85

Sandstone, 15, 17, 23, 84, 90, 267, 269

Santa Rita, New Mexico, copper ores, 203

Sapphires, 289, 291, 293

Sargasso Sea theory, of deposition of lead and zinc sulphides, 217

Saxony, bismuth, 252 tin, 262

Scandinavia, molybdenum, 386 nitrogen-fixation plants, 102

Schistose structure, 26

Schlumberger, C., 319

Schuchert, Charles, 144

Schultz, Robert S., Jr., 417

Scotland, magnesite, 191 oil shales, 150

Searles Lake California, borax deposits, 276 potash deposits, 112, 113-114

Secondary enrichment, 7-8, 25, 46-50 See also under Copper ores, Silver ores, etc.

Secondary ore deposits, use of term, 32

Sedigenetic deposits, use of term, 51

Sedimentary mineral deposits, unsolved problems, 9, 53, 56

Sedimentary rocks, formation of, 22-24, 96 mineral deposits associated with, 23, 51-57 principal minerals of, 15-16 proportions of principal types, 17 relative abundance of, 16 weathering of, 23

Sedimentation, relation to economic geology, 2

Segregation, magmatic, 34-35, 59

Sericitic alteration, 39

Serpentine, 83

Seward Peninsula, Alaska, tin ores, 261, 262

Shale, 15, 17, 23, 85, 90

Shasta County, California, copper ores, 204

Shipping Board, 356, 406

Siam, sapphires, 289, 293 tin, 260 tungsten, 183, 184

Siberia, emeralds, 293 gold, 222, 226 lead, 210 vanadium, 187 zinc, 214

Silesia, cadmium, 254 coal, under Peace Treaty, 401 lead and zinc ores, 54-55, 210, 211-212, 214-215, 216-218

Silica, 195-196, 267, 269 See also Quartz, Quartzite, Sand, Sandstone, etc.

"Silt" (fine coal), use of, 370, 371

Silver ores, 36-50, 55, 231-237, 308, 313-314, 397

Silver Reef, Utah, deposits, 55

Slate, 85, 89

Slides, earth and rock, 78, 357, 415-417

Smelting capacity of world, 61

Smith, George Otis, 310, 367, 403

Smith, George Otis and Lesher, C. E., 371, 373, 373, 375

Smyrna, Turkey, emery, 268

Soapstone, 299-300

Societies, professional, standards of admission, 421-422, 428

Soils, classification, 97 composition, 96-97, 99 origin, 94-96 use of fertilizer minerals on, 99-101 use of geology in study of, 95-98

Sound waves, possible use in exploration, 319

South Africa, asbestos, 271, 272 cement, 87 coal, 116 cobalt, 255 copper, 197-198, 205 corundum, 268 diamond dust, 268 diamonds, 289, 291-292, 316 gold, 222-226, 228 iron, 154,164 mica, 286 tin, 260 vanadium, 187

South Africa, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343, 345

South America, cement, 87-88 coal, 116 lead, 210, 211 mercury, 258 zinc, 214 See also under individual countries.

South America, laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343-344, 345

South Carolina, coal, 117 monazite, 288, 289 phosphates, 105, 107

South Dakota, gold, 222, 228, 229 quartzite, 84 tin, 262 tungsten, 183

Southern Graphite Association, 405

Southern Pacific Railway, litigation in regard to oil lands, 348

Spain, arsenic, 250 barite, 272 cement, 87 copper, 197-198, 204 garnet, 268, 270 iron, 154, 156, 160-161, 162, 163 lead, 210, 211-212 manganese, 174 mercury, 256-257, 259 phosphates, 104, 106 platinum, 238 potash, 111-113 pyrite, 107-108 salt, 294 silver, 232 sulphur, 109-110 zinc, 214-215

Spain, commercial and political control of various minerals, 64

Spiegeleisen, 173-174

Springs, 72

Spurr, J. E., 43, 64, 403

Stassfurt, Germany, borax, 277 bromine, 278 potash, 111-112, 113, 296-297 salt, common, 296-297

Steel. See Iron and steel

Stone. See Building stone, Common rocks.

Storage of coal, 376

Stratigraphy, relation to economic geology, 4

Structural geology, relation to economic geology, 5 use of principles of in exploration for mineral deposits, 319-320

Structures of rocks, relation to earth stresses, 5 relation to topography, 7

Subsidence of ground over mining operations, geologic study of, 357, 417

Sudbury, Ontario, cobalt, 255 nickel ores, 34-35, 180-182, 308, 312, 318 platinum, 238, 239

Sulphide enrichment. See Secondary enrichment.

Sulphur, 99-100, 109-111, 397

Sulphur Bank Springs, California, deposition of mercury by hot waters, 259

Supergene ores, use of term, 32, 33, 48

Surface water supplies, 76-78

Surface waters, application of geology to use of, 414 relation to excavation and construction, 78-79

Sweden, cement, 87 iron, 154, 155, 156, 158, 160, 162, 163, 171 manganese, 176 phosphate from Thomas slag, 104 zinc, 214 See also Scandinavia.

Switzerland, cement, 87 nitrogen fixation plants, 102

Syngenetic ore deposits, use of term, 32, 34, 51

Taconite, 167

Talc and soapstone, 299-300, 397

Tankage, use of phosphate content, 104

Tariffs, proposed, on mineral resources, 175-176, 179, 184, 192, 248, 257-258

Tariffs and duties, anti-conservational effect of, 362-363, 366, 375, 376, 393-394

Tasmania, bismuth, 252 platinum, 238 zinc, 214

Taxation of mineral resources, 1, 335-341

Tennessee, barite, 273 bauxite, 243, 245 copper, 204 flint linings, 269 marble, 83 petroleum, 132, 133 phosphates, 105, 107 zinc, 54-55, 216, 219

Terlingua district, Texas, mercury, 257, 259

Texas, asphalt and bitumen, 152 coal, 117 fuller's earth, 279 graphite, 281 gypsum, 284 mercury, 256, 257, 259 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133, 135, 148 salt, 298 sulphur, 110

Thermal metamorphism. See Contact metamorphism.

Thermal waters, 72

Thibet, borax, 275, 276

Thomas process of steel making, 158, 161 use of slag for phosphate content, 104, 106

Tin ores, 36-50, 51, 260-263, 307, 322, 386, 392, 398

Tintic, Utah, silver ores, 39, 42, 235, 251, 253

Titaniferous magnetites, 34, 171, 191

Titanium ores, 190-191, 398

Tonopah, Nevada, gold silver ores, 38, 234, 236-237, 308

Topographic cycle, description of, 6

Topography, relation to mineral deposits, 7-9, 314-315 relation to rock structures, 7

Tourmaline, 290, 293

Training in economic geology, 420-428

Transvaal, Africa, asbestos, 272 diamonds, 291 gold, 222, 223-225, 228

Trap-rock, 82

Travertine, 83

Treadwell Mine, Alaska, gold ores, 229

Trenches, military, application of geology to, 408, 410-411

Trinidad, asphalt, 152, 153 petroleum, 128

Tripoli, 267, 269, 398

Tungsten ores, 51, 182-185, 386, 398

Tunis, phosphates, 104-106 potash, 112 See also North Africa.

Tunnels, application of geology to construction, 414-415

Turkey, borax, 275 chromite, 178-179 emery, 268, 270

Turquoise, 290, 293

Tuscany, Italy, borax deposits, 275

Umpleby, Joseph B., 383

Underground waters. See Ground-waters.

United Kingdom. See Great Britain.

United States, abrasives, natural, 267-270, 397, 398 aluminum, 242-245, 397 antimony, 247-248, 249, 398 arsenic, 250-251, 397 asbestos, 270-272, 398 asphalt and bitumen, 152, 397 barite, 273-274, 397 bauxite, 242-245, 397 bismuth, 252-253, 397 borax, 275, 276, 397 bromine, 277, 278, 397 cadmium, 253-254, 397 cement, 87-88, 397 chalk, 83, 398 chromite, 179, 398 coal, 115-118, 126, 127, 366-367, 397 common rocks, 82-88, 397 copper, 197-208, 396 corundum, 267-268, 270, 398 diatomaceous earth, 269, 398 emery, 267-268, 270, 397 feldspar, 86, 397 ferro-alloy minerals, general, 154-158 fertilizers, general, 100-101 fluorspar, 194, 397 fuller's earth, 278-279, 397 garnet, 268, 260, 398 gold, 222-230, 397 graphite, 279-283, 398 grinding pebbles, 268, 398 gypsum, 283-284, 397 iron, 158-163, 166-171, 397 lead, 209-213, 397 lime, 82-83, 397 magnesite, 191-193, 397 manganese, 174-177, 398 mercury, 256-259, 398 mica, 286-287, 398 mineral paints, 397 molybdenum ores, 186-187, 397 monazite, 288, 289, 398 natural abrasives, 267-270, 397, 398 natural gas, 151 nickel, 181, 398 nitrates, 102, 398 oil shales, 150-151 petroleum, 128-150, 396, 398 phosphates, 104-107, 397 platinum, 238-240, 398 potash, 112-114, 398 precious stones, 290, 292-293, 398 pumice, 268, 398 pyrite, 107-109, 397 salt, 294-298, 397 silica, 195-196 silver, 231-237, 397 stone, 82-88, 397 sulphur, 109-111, 397 talc, 299, 300, 397 tin, 261, 262, 398 titanium, 190-191, 398 tripoli, 269, 398 tungsten, 183-185, 398 uranium and radium, 264-266, 397 vanadium, 18, 188, 398 zinc, 214-220, 398 zirconium, 189, 398

United States, control of various minerals in other countries, 64, 102, 129, 152, 163-164, 165, 175, 180-181, 184, 187, 189, 191, 198, 222, 232, 238, 243, 261 laws relating to ownership of mineral resources, 343-345 quantitative feature of mineral production, 60-66 relative position in regard to supplies of minerals, 396-400 tendencies toward nationalization of mineral resources, 345-346

United States Bituminous Coal Commission, 376

United States Bureau of Mines, activities in the war, 406 literature or international mineral relations, 403

United States Geological Survey, activities in the war, 406, 407 classification of mineral lands, 310-311 employment by, 428 literature on international mineral relations, 403

United States Shipping Board, 356, 406

Uranium ores, 55, 263-264, 397

Utah, arsenic, 250, 251 asphalt and bitumen, 152 bismuth, 253 copper, 37, 42, 47, 55, 199, 203, 204, 207, 208, 314 gold, 222, 314 lead, 42, 211, 212 manganese, 55 oil shales, 151 phosphates, 105 potash, 112, 114 silver, 42, 55, 234, 235 uranium and radium, 55, 264, 265 vanadium, 55, 187-188

Utah, ore deposits, relation to intrusive stocks, 44

Vadose zone, 70

Valuation of Lorraine iron ores at Peace Conference, 364

Valuation of mineral resources, 81, 328-341, 396

Value, capital, of mineral resources, 64, 328

Value of United States mineral production and imports, 62

Value of world mineral production, 62-63

Vanadium ores, 55, 187-188, 398

Van Hise, C. R., 367, 374

Van Hise, C. R., and Leith, C. K., 56, 324

Vein, application of legal term to diverse mineral deposits, 350

Venezuela, asphalt, 152, 153 magnesite, 191-193 petroleum, 128 phosphates, 105

Verde district, Arizona. See Jerome district.

Vermilion district, Minnesota, iron ore outcrops, 312

Vermont, granite, 82 marble, 83 serpentine, 83 slate, 85 talc, 299

Virginia, arsenic, 250, 251 emery, 268 manganese, 175 millstones and buhrstones, 269 pyrite, 108 talc and soapstone, 299, 300 titanium, 190 zinc, 54-55, 219

Virginia City, Nevada. See Comstock Lode

Volcanic ash, use as abrasive, 270

Wabana, Newfoundland, iron ores, 52-53, 160, 166

Wales, coal, 126

War, anti-conservational effects of, 365-366 application of geology to, 405-412 effect on ad valorem valuations, 335

War Industries Board, 356, 406

War Minerals Committee, 406

War Trade Board, 356, 406

"Wash," use in tracing mineral outcrops, 316-317

Washington, arsenic, 250 chromite, 179 magnesite, 191-193

Water, applications of economic geology to, 68 as a mineral resource, 61, 62, 67-79 general geologic relations, 67-68 hygroscopic, defined, 68 of constitution, defined, 68 quantity absorbed by soils and rocks, 69 relative abundance of, 18 source of, 67 use of, litigation arising from, 357-358 See also Ground-waters, Surface waters, Hot waters, Meteoric waters, Magmatic waters.

Water power, possibilities of substituting for coal, 378-379

Water supplies, 72-78

Water supply maps for military use, 411-412

Water table, defined, 70 See also Ground-water level.

Waters, thermal, 72

Watson, T. L., and Ries, H., 413

Weathering, of igneous rocks and veins, 20-22 of igneous rocks, formation of mineral deposits by, 50 of mineral deposits, 46-50 of sedimentary rocks, 23-24 production of clay by, 91 production of soils by, 94-96 zone of, 70

Welfare work, in interests of conservation, 372-373

Wells, 72-73

West Africa, gold, 222 manganese, 176

West Indies, cement, 87 phosphates, 105, 106 salt, 294

West Virginia, bromine, 277 coal, 117 grindstones and pulpstones, 269 natural gas, 151 petroleum, 132, 133

Whetstones, 269

White, David, 128, 129, 140, 143, 146

White Signal district, New Mexico, uranium and radium ores, 265-266

Wisconsin, artesian wells, 73 diamonds in glacial drift, 292, 317 granite, 82 iron. See Lake Superior iron ores, Gogebic district, etc. quartzite, 82, 84, 195 zinc, 216

Wisconsin, equated income method of taxation, 335-336 taxation of iron ores, 335

Witwatersrand, South Africa, gold ores, 228

Wolfram ores. See Tungsten ores.

Woodward, H. B., 69

Wyoming, chromite, 179 oil shales, 151 petroleum, 133 phosphates, 105 platinum, 239 potash, 112 uranium and radium ores, 265

Yellow Pine district, Nevada, platinum ores, 239-240

Yellowstone Park, springs and geysers of, 72

Zinc and lead ores, Wisconsin, equated income method of taxation, 335-336

Zinc ores, 36-50, 54-55, 213-220, 308, 313-314, 398

Zinc Syndicate, German, 215

Zirconium ores, 189-190, 398

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