The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy

CHAPTER VII.. The Republics: Venice and Florence.

THE REPUBLICS: VENICE AND FLORENCE.

Venice in the fifteenth century 62

The inhabitants 63

Dangers from the poor nobility 64

Causes of the stability of Venice 65

The Council of Ten and political trials 66

Relations with the Condottieri 67

Optimism of Venetian foreign policy 68

Venice as the home of statistics 69

Retardation of the Renaissance 71

Mediæval devotion to reliques 72

Florence from the fourteenth century 73

Objectivity of political intelligence 74

Dante as a politician 75

Florence as the home of statistics: the two Villanis 76

Higher form of statistics 77

Florentine constitutions and the historians 82

Fundamental vice of the State 82

Political theorists 83

Macchiavelli and his views 84

Siena and Genoa 86

CHAPTER VIII.. Foreign Policy of the Italian States.

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE ITALIAN STATES.

Envy felt towards Venice 88

Relations to other countries: sympathy with France 89

Plan for a balance of power 90

Foreign intervention and conquests 91

Alliances with the Turks 92

Counter-influence of Spain 94

Objective treatment of politics 95

Art of diplomacy 96

CHAPTER IX.. War As a Work of Art.

WAR AS A WORK OF ART.

Firearms 98

Professional warriors and dilettanti 99

Horrors of war 101

CHAPTER X.

THE PAPACY AND ITS DANGERS.

Relation of the Papacy to Italy and foreign countries 103

Disturbances in Rome from the time of Nicholas V. 104

Sixtus IV. master of Rome 105

States of the Nipoti in Romagna 107

Cardinals belonging to princely houses 107

Innocent VIII. and his son 108

Alexander VI. as a Spaniard 109

Relations with foreign countries 110

Simony 111

Cæsar Borgia and his relations to his father 111

Cæsar’s plans and acts 112

Julius II. as Saviour of the Papacy 117

Leo X. His relations with other States 120

Adrian VI. 121

Clement VII. and the sack of Rome 122

Reaction consequent on the latter 123

The Papacy of the Counter-Reformation 124

Conclusion. The Italian patriots 125

PART II.. _the Development of the Individual._

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL.

CHAPTER I.

THE ITALIAN STATE AND THE INDIVIDUAL.

The mediæval man 129

The awakening of personality 129

The despot and his subjects 130

Individualism in the Republics 131

Exile and cosmopolitanism 132

CHAPTER II.. The Perfecting of the Individual.

THE PERFECTING OF THE INDIVIDUAL.

The many-sided men 134

The universal men 136

CHAPTER III.

THE MODERN IDEA OF FAME.

Dante’s feeling about fame 139

The celebrity of the Humanists: Petrarch 141

Cultus of birthplace and graves 142

Cultus of the famous men of antiquity 143

Literature of local fame: Padua 143

Literature of universal fame 146

Fame given or refused by the writers 150

Morbid passion for fame 152

CHAPTER IV.. Modern Wit and Satire.

MODERN WIT AND SATIRE.

Its connection with individualism 154

Florentine wit: the novel 155

Jesters and buffoons 156

Leo X. and his witticisms 157

Poetical parodies 158

Theory of wit 159

Railing and reviling 161

Adrian VI. as scapegoat 162

Pietro Aretino 164

PART III.. _the Revival of Antiquity._

THE REVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Widened application of the word ‘Renaissance’ 171

Antiquity in the Middle Ages 172

Latin poetry of the twelfth century in Italy 173

The spirit of the fourteenth century 175

CHAPTER II.. Rome, the City of Ruins.

ROME, THE CITY OF RUINS.

Dante, Petrarch, Uberti 177

Rome at the time of Poggio 179

Nicholas V., and Pius II. as an antiquarian 180

Antiquity outside Rome 181

Affiliation of families and cities on Rome 182

The Roman corpse 183

Excavations and architectural plans 184

Rome under Leo X. 184

Sentimental effect of ruins 185

CHAPTER III.. The Old Authors.

THE OLD AUTHORS.

Their diffusion in the fourteenth century 187

Discoveries in the fifteenth century 188

The libraries 189

Copyists and ‘Scrittori’ 192

Printing 194

Greek scholarship 195

Oriental scholarship 197

Pico’s view of antiquity 202

CHAPTER IV.. Humanism in the Fourteenth Century.

HUMANISM IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

Its inevitable victory 203

Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio 205

Coronation of the poets 207

CHAPTER V.

THE UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.

Position of the Humanists at the Universities 211

Latin schools 213

Freer education: Vittorino da Feltre 213

Guarino of Verona 215

The education of princes 216

CHAPTER VI.. The Furtherers of Humanism.

THE FURTHERERS OF HUMANISM.

Florentine citizens: Niccoli and Manetti 217

The earlier Medici 220

Humanism at the Courts 222

The Popes from Nicholas V. onwards 223

Alfonso of Naples 225

Frederick of Urbino 227

The Houses of Sforza and Este 227

Sigismodo Malatesta 228

CHAPTER VII.. The Reproduction of Antiquity. Latin Correspondence and Orations.

THE REPRODUCTION OF ANTIQUITY. LATIN CORRESPONDENCE AND ORATIONS.

The Papal Chancery 230

Letter-writing 232

The orators 233

Political, diplomatic, and funeral orations 236

Academic and military speeches 237

Latin sermons 238

Form and matter of the speeches 239

Passion for quotation 240

Imaginary speeches 241

Decline of eloquence 242

CHAPTER VIII.. Latin Treatises and History.

LATIN TREATISES AND HISTORY.

Value of Latin 243

Researches on the Middle Ages: Blondus 245

Histories in Italian; their antique spirit 246

CHAPTER IX.. General Latinisation of Culture.

GENERAL LATINISATION OF CULTURE.

Ancient names 250

Latinised social relations 251

Claims of Latin to supremacy 252

Cicero and the Ciceronians 253

Latin conversation 254

CHAPTER X.. Modern Latin Poetry.

MODERN LATIN POETRY.

Epic poems on ancient history: The ‘Africa’ 258

Mythic poetry 259

Christian epics: Sannazaro 260

Poetry on contemporary subjects 261

Introduction of mythology 262

Didactic poetry: Palingenius 263

Lyric poetry and its limits 264

Odes on the saints 265

Elegies and the like 266

The epigram 267

CHAPTER XI.. Fall of the Humanists in the Sixteenth Century.

FALL OF THE HUMANISTS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

The accusations and the amount of truth they contained 272

Misery of the scholars 277

Type of the happy scholar 278

Pomponius Laetus 279

The Academies 280

PART IV.. _the Discovery of the World and of Man._

THE DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD AND OF MAN.

CHAPTER I.

JOURNEYS OF THE ITALIANS.

Columbus 286

Cosmographical purpose in travel 287

CHAPTER II.

NATURAL SCIENCE IN ITALY.

Empirical tendency of the nation 289

Dante and astronomy 290

Attitude of the Church towards natural science 290

Influence of Humanism 291

Botany and gardens 292

Zoology and collections of foreign animals 293

Human menagerie of Ippolito Medici 296

CHAPTER III.. The Discovery of Natural Beauty.

THE DISCOVERY OF NATURAL BEAUTY.

Landscapes in the Middle Ages 299

Petrarch and his ascents of mountains 301

Uberti’s ‘Dittamondo’ 302

The Flemish school of painting 302

Æneas Sylvius and his descriptions 303

Nature in the poets and novelists 305

CHAPTER IV.. The Discovery of Man.--Spiritual Description in Poetry.

THE DISCOVERY OF MAN.--SPIRITUAL DESCRIPTION IN POETRY.

Popular psychological ground-work. The temperaments 309

Value of unrhymed poetry 310

Value of the Sonnet 310

Dante and the ‘Vita Nuova’ 312

The ‘Divine Comedy’ 312

Petrarch as a painter of the soul 314

Boccaccio and the Fiammetta 315

Feeble development of tragedy 315

Scenic splendour, the enemy of the drama 316

The intermezzo and the ballet 317

Comedies and masques 320

Compensation afforded by music 321

Epic romances 321

Necessary subordination of the descriptions of character 323

Pulci and Bojardo 323

Inner law of their compositions 324

Ariosto and his style 325

Folengo and parody 326

Contrast offered by Tasso 327

CHAPTER V.. Biography.

BIOGRAPHY.

Advance of Italy on the Middle Ages 328

Tuscan biographers 330

Biography in other parts of Italy 332

Autobiography; Æneas Sylvius 333

Benvenuto Cellini 333

Girolamo Cardano 334

Luigi Cornaro 335

CHAPTER VI.. The Description of Nations and Cities.

THE DESCRIPTION OF NATIONS AND CITIES.

The ‘Dittamondo’ 339

Descriptions in the sixteenth century 339

CHAPTER VII.

DESCRIPTION OF THE OUTWARD MAN.

Boccaccio on Beauty 344

Ideal of Firenzuola 345

His general definitions 345

CHAPTER VIII.

DESCRIPTIONS OF LIFE IN MOVEMENT.

Æneas Sylvius and others 349

Conventional bucolic poetry from the time of Petrarch 350

Genuine poetic treatment of country life 351

Battista Mantovano, Lorenzo Magnifico, Pulci 352

Angelo Poliziano 353

Man, and the conception of humanity 354

Pico della Mirandola on the dignity of man 354

PART V.. _society and Festivals._

SOCIETY AND FESTIVALS.

CHAPTER I.

THE EQUALISATION OF CLASSES.

Contrast to the Middle Ages 359

Common life of nobles and burghers in the cities 359

Theoretical criticism of noble birth 360

The nobles in different parts of Italy 362

The nobility and culture 363

Bad influence of Spain 363

Knighthood since the Middle Ages 364

The tournaments and the caricature of them 365

Noble birth as a requisite of the courtier 367

CHAPTER II.. Outward Refinement of Life.

OUTWARD REFINEMENT OF LIFE.

Costume and fashions 369

The toilette of women 371

Cleanliness 374

The ‘Galateo’ and good manners 375

Comfort and elegance 376

CHAPTER III.. Language As the Basis of Social Intercourse.

LANGUAGE AS THE BASIS OF SOCIAL INTERCOURSE.

Development of an ideal language 378

Its wide diffusion 379

The Purists 379

Their want of success 382

Conversation 383

CHAPTER IV.. The Higher Forms of Society.

THE HIGHER FORMS OF SOCIETY.

Rules and statutes 384

The novelists and their society 384

The great lady and the drawing-room 385

Florentine society 386

Lorenzo’s descriptions of his own circle 387

CHAPTER V.. The Perfect Man of Society.

THE PERFECT MAN OF SOCIETY.

His love-making 388

His outward and spiritual accomplishments 389

Bodily exercises 389

Music 390

The instruments and the Virtuosi 392

Musical dilettantism in society 393

CHAPTER VI.. The Position of Women.

THE POSITION OF WOMEN.

Their masculine education and poetry 396

Completion of their personality 397

The Virago 398

Women in society 399

The culture of the prostitutes 399

CHAPTER VII.. Domestic Economy.

DOMESTIC ECONOMY.

Contrast to the Middle Ages 402

Agnolo Pandolfini (L. B. Alberti) 402

The villa and country life 404

CHAPTER VIII.

THE FESTIVALS.

Their origin in the mystery and the procession 406

Advantages over foreign countries 408

Historical representatives of abstractions 409

The Mysteries 411

Corpus Christi at Viterbo 414

Secular representations 415

Pantomimes and princely receptions 417

Processions and religious Trionfi 419

Secular Trionfi 420

Regattas and processions on water 424

The Carnival at Rome and Florence 426

PART VI.. _morality and Religion._

MORALITY AND RELIGION.

CHAPTER I.

MORALITY.

Limits of criticism 431

Continue reading The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy free in the Wunder reader →