The Chemical Nature of the Alpha Particles From Radioactive Substances

Part 1

ERNEST RUTHERFORD

NOBEL LECTURE December 11, 1908.

THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE ALPHA PARTICLES FROM RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

The study of the properties of the α-rays has played a notable part in the development of radioactivity and has been instrumental in bringing to light a number of facts and relationships of the first importance. With increase of experimental knowledge there has been a growing recognition that a large part of radioactive phenomena is intimately connected with the expulsion of the α-particles. In this lecture an attempt will be made to give a brief historical account of the development of our knowledge of the α-rays and to trace the long and arduous path trodden by the experimenter in the attempts to solve the difficult question of the chemical nature of the α-particles. α-rays were first observed in 1899 as a special type of radiation and during the last six years there has been a persistent attack on this great problem, which has finally yielded to the assault when the resources of the attack seemed almost exhausted.

Shortly after his discovery of the radiating power of uranium by the photographic method, Becquerel showed that the radiation from uranium like the Röntgen-rays possessed the property of discharging an electrified body. In a detailed investigation of this property, I examined the effect on the rate of discharge by placing successive layers of thin aluminium foil over the surface of a layer of uranium oxide and was led to the conclusion that two types of radiation of very different penetrating power were present. The conclusions at that period were summed up as follows:

"These experiments show that the uranium, radiation is complex and that there are present at least two distinct types of radiation--one that is very readily absorbed, which will be termed for convenience the α-radiation, and the other of a more penetrative character, which will be termed the β-radiation." When other radioactive substances were discovered, it was seen that the types of radiation present were analogous to the β– and α-rays of uranium and when a still more penetrating type of radiation from radium was discovered by Villard, the term γ-rays was applied to them. The names thus given soon came into general use as a convenient nomenclature for the three distinct types of radiation emitted from uranium, radium, thorium, and actinium. On account of their insignificant penetrating power, the α-rays were at first considered of little importance and attention was mainly directed to the more penetrating β-rays. With the advent of active preparations of radium, Giesel in 1899 showed that the β-rays from this substance were easily deflected by a magnetic field in the same direction as a stream of cathode rays and consequently appeared to be a stream of projected particles carrying a negative charge. The proof of the identity of the β-particles with the electrons constituting the cathode rays was completed in 1900 by Becquerel, who showed that the β-particles from radium had about the same small mass as the electrons and were projected at a speed comparable with the velocity of light. Time does not allow me to enter into the later work of Kaufmann and others on this subject, which has greatly extended our knowledge of the constitution and mass of electrons.

In the meantime, further investigation had disclosed that the α-particles produced most of the ionization observed in the neighbourhood of an unscreened radioactive substance, and that most of the energy radiated was in the form of α-rays. It was calculated by Rutherford and McClung in 1901 that one gram of radium radiated a large amount of energy in the form of α-rays.

The increasing recognition of the importance of the α-rays in radioactive phenomena led to attempts to determine the nature of this easily absorbed type of radiation. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) in 1901 and Sir William Crookes in 1902 suggested that they might possibly prove to be projected particles carrying a positive charge. I independently arrived at the same conclusion from consideration of a variety of evidence. If this were the case, the α-rays should be deflected by a magnetic field. Preliminary work showed that the deflection was very slight if it occurred at all. Experiments were continued at intervals over a period of two years and it was not until 1902, when a preparation of radium of activity 19,000 was available, that I was able to show conclusively that the particles were deflected by a magnetic field, though in a very minute degree compared with the β-rays. This showed that the α-rays consisted of projected charged particles while the direction of deflection indicated that each particle carried a positive charge. The α-particles were shown to be deflected also by an electric field and from the magnitude of the deflection, it was deduced that the velocity of the swiftest particles was about 2.5 x 10^9 cm per second, or one-twelfth the velocity of light, while the value of e/m--the ratio of the charge carried by the particle to its mass--was found to be 5,000 electromagnetic units. Now it is known from the data of the electrolysis of water that the value of e/m for the hydrogen atom is 9,650. If the α-particle carried the same positive charge as the unit fundamental charge of the hydrogen atom, it was seen that the mass of the α-particle was about twice that of the hydrogen atom. On account of the complexity of the rays it was recognized that the results were only approximate, but the experiments indicated clearly that the α-particle was atomic in mass and might prove ultimately to be either a hydrogen or a helium atom or the atom of some unknown element of light atomic weight. These experiments were repeated by Des Coudres in 1903 with similar results, while Becquerel showed the deflection of the α-rays in a magnetic field by the photographic method.

This proof that the α-particles consisted of actual charged atoms of matter projected with an enormous velocity at once threw a flood of light on radioactive processes, in particular upon another important series of investigations which were being contemporaneously carried on in the Laboratory at Montreal in conjunction with Mr. F. Soddy. Had time permitted, it would have been of interest to consider in some detail the nature of these researches which placed on a firm foundation the now generally accepted "transformation theory" of radioactivity. From a close examination of the substances thorium, radium, and uranium, Rutherford and Soddy had reached the conclusion that radioactive bodies were in a state of transformation, as a result of which a number of new substances were produced entirely distinct in chemical and physical character from the parent element. From the independence of the rate of transformation of chemical and physical agencies, it was recognized that the transformation was atomic and not molecular in character. Each of these new bodies was shown to lose its radioactive properties according to a definite law. Even before the discovery of the material nature of the α-rays, it had been considered probable that the radiation from any particular substance accompanied the breaking up of its atoms. The proof that the α-particle was an ejected atom of matter at once strengthened this conclusion and at the same time gave a more concrete and definite representation of the processes occurring in radioactive matter. The point of view reached by us at that time is clearly seen from the following quotation, which with little alteration holds good today. "The results obtained so far point to the conclusion that the beginning of the succession of chemical changes taking place in radioactive bodies is due to the emission of the α-rays, i.e. the projection of a heavy charged mass from the atom. The portion left behind is unstable, undergoing further chemical changes which are again accompanied by the emission of α-rays, and in some cases also of β-rays.

"The power possessed by the radioactive bodies of apparently spontaneously projecting large masses with enormous velocities supports the view that the atoms of these substances are made up, in part at least, of rapidly rotating or oscillating systems of heavy charged bodies, large compared with the electron. The sudden escape of these masses from their orbit may be due either to the action of internal forces or external forces of which we have at present no knowledge."

Consider for a moment the explanation of the changes in radium. A minute fraction of the radium atoms is supposed each second to become unstable, breaking up with explosive violence. A fragment of the atom--and α-particle--is ejected at a high speed, and the residue of the atom, which has a lighter weight than before, becomes an atom of a new substance, the radium emanation. The atoms of this substance are far more unstable than those of radium and explode again with the expulsion of an α-particle. As a result the atom of radium A makes its appearance and the process of disintegration thus started continues through a long series of stages.

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